Cislunar space is getting increasingly important. Countries like the US and China are directing their attention towards the Moon with the Artemis and Chang’e missions. Simultaneously, space debris pollution of our orbits is escalating, increasing the risk of the Kessler syndrome occurring. Space Situational Awareness (SSA) aims to prevent this. The sheer amount of space debris makes continuous tracking unfeasible. This creates the need for accurate orbit determination and propagation between observations. Model frameworks have been developed extensively for space debris in near-Earth orbits, but there is little experience with cislunar space. This region is more challenging because of its unstable nature, increasing the risk of losing track of objects.

In this research, a model framework is developed, using the open-source Python package Tudat, that can estimate and propagate long-term cislunar space debris orbits accurately from optical data, whilst quantifying the uncertainties realistically over time using Monte Carlo simulation. Orbit determination has been performed using Weighted Least-Squares. The algorithm can estimate (amongst other parameters) initial states of the objects, model parameters like radiation pressure properties, and observation bias. We apply our framework to the Chang’e 2 and 3 upper stages. A selection of 13 estimation windows has allowed for analysis on a diverse range of orbital and observation characteristics. Moreover, the effect of close Moon approaches on orbit determination quality and propagation accuracy has been investigated.

A generic model framework has been found that achieves sufficient accuracy with reasonable computational load for all 13 use cases and can be used as a foundation for other cislunar space debris studies. The generic framework only estimates initial state, and uses a relatively simple dynamical model and integrator configuration. This allows sufficiently accurate propagation up to 2 years out-of-sample, depending strongly on the stability of the orbit. Afterwards, the generic model framework is tailored on individual use cases to improve its performance. Parameters like the radiation pressure coefficient and observation bias are estimated in this process. The tailored model framework improved performance for 8 out of 13 use cases (compared to the generic model framework), decreasing out-of-sample RMSE between 20-95% and increasing period of sufficient accuracy with up to 250 days. Estimating on 7-10 months of observations results in the best orbit determination quality and propagation accuracy for the cislunar use cases. The tailored model framework performs robustly for various non-linear orbits, except for out-of-sample close Moon approaches. Several solutions are proposed to solve this issue. Finally, it is found that the effect of uncertainty for cislunar space debris orbits over time is significant in the current framework. Uncertainty over time is especially large when estimating on short estimation windows (<4 months) and for orbits experiencing non-linear behaviour.

The human eye has turned itself back to the sky with the commercialisation of the space industry, and a new goal has been set. Setting foot on the Red Planet is the next stage of the human exploration of the universe. The travel to Mars is very lengthy and costly, nonetheless the planet still shows great potential for sustaining human life. To make this a possibility, there is a need for locally sourced energy. The presence of (re-)usable resources on Mars could pave the way to further expand the exploration to an interplanetary scale, and successfully maintain a human presence outside the Earth's atmosphere. The availability of energy will be a key indicator for the success of the human race in the colonisation of Mars. To answer this call for the need to generate locally sourced energy, the design of a renewable energy system was started by a team of students and staff from the faculty of Aerospace Engineering at Delft University of Technology: The Arcadian Renewable Energy System (ARES). The energy system will power the construction and operations of a Mars habitat, to support the livability of humans. The system will use complementary renewable energy sources integrated into a microgrid, to sustainably harvest energy from local Martian environment and resources. To ensure the design will be able to fulfil its purpose, a mission need statement and a project objective statement are generated: Mission Need Statement: To provide renewable energy supply of 10 kW to a Mars habitat. Project Objective Statement: Design a renewable energy supply system, primarily focusing on wind energy, which provides 10kW to a Mars habitat, by 10 students in 10 weeks. Synthesis Exercise (DSE) will last a total of 10 weeks, beginning on the 20th of April, ending on the 2nd of July, with a poster session and symposium. The DSE is in collaboration with the Architectural faculty, where a separate team of students is working on a rhizomatic Mars habitat project as part of an ESA competition, which has an ESA-ESTEC feasibility study proposal incorporated. Due to the multi-disciplinary nature of this project, it is important that the DSE team produces a complete and verified design as the outcome. The Design The design the DSE has come up with consists of two energy production systems, namely the primary and secondary energy system providing wind and solar energy, respectively. In addition the system also consists of a power management and energy storage system.