Operando characterization is crucial for understanding the selectivity and stability of the electrochemical CO₂ reduction reaction (eCO₂RR). Existing operando techniques normally use single-compartment cells operating at low currents. However, high current densities on the order of 100 mA cm^-2 are required for practical applications. Under a high current, reaction pathways and electrolyte dynamics can change, and stability issues such as salt precipitation and water crossover become more pronounced. Here, we developed an inline operando NMR method that is compatible with high-current reaction conditions. Demonstrating this on a copper-catalyzed eCO₂RR at 100 mA cm^-2, the operando NMR revealed a fast decrease of Faradaic efficiency for formate and ethanol within half an hour of reaction, accompanied by a pH decrease from 14 to 8 and a continuous accumulation of bicarbonate in the electrolyte. Water crossover was simultaneously observed and quantified via a deuteration technique and became more severe at high currents. This study revealed a highly dynamic electrolyte environment of copper-catalyzed eCO₂RR. Using a gas diffusion flow cell and a benchtop NMR system, this operando approach is accessible by non-NMR experts and readily applicable to a wide range of catalysts, electrolyte compositions, and reactor designs for eCO₂RR.

Two-dimensional (2D) materials offer distinct advantages for electrochemical energy storage (EES) compared to bulk materials, including a high surface-to-volume ratio, tunable interlayer spacing, and excellent in-plane conductivity, making them highly attractive for applications in batteries and supercapacitors. Gaining a fundamental understanding of the energy storage processes in 2D material-based EES devices is essential for optimizing their chemical composition, surface chemistry, morphology, and interlayer structure to enhance ion transport, promote redox reactions, suppress side reactions, and ultimately improve overall performance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the characterization techniques employed to probe charge storage mechanisms in 2D and thin-layered material-based EES systems, covering optical spectroscopy, imaging techniques, X-ray and neutron-based methods, mechanical probing, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. We specifically highlight the application of these techniques in elucidating ion transport dynamics, tracking redox processes, identifying degradation pathways, and detecting interphase formation. Furthermore, we discuss the limitations, challenges, and potential pitfalls associated with each method, as well as future directions for advancing characterization techniques to better understand and optimize 2D material-based electrodes.