This article contains data outlining the effects of increased storm intensity on estuarine salt marshes, previously evaluated in Pannozzo et al. (2021), using the Ribble Estuary, in North West England, as a case study. The hydrodynamic model Delft3D was used to simulate various surge height scenarios and evaluate the effects of increasing surge height on the sediment budget of the system. The data shows that an increase in storm intensity (i.e. surge height) promotes flood dominance and triggers a net import of sediment, positively contributing to the sediment budget of the marsh platform and the estuarine system. The timing of the storm surge relative to high or low tide, the duration of the surge and the presence of vegetation do not cause major changes in the sediment budget. This dataset could be used to evaluate how increased storm intensity might influence the sediment budget of estuaries in comparison to other types of coastal systems (e.g., bays) to illustrate how the response of salt marshes to increased storm intensity varies with a change in the hydrodynamics and sediment delivery dynamics of the system.@en

Salt marshes are important ecosystems but their resilience to sea-level rise and possible increases in storm intensity is largely uncertain. The current paradigm is that a positive sediment budget supports the survival and accretion of salt marshes while sediment deprivation causes marsh degradation. However, few studies have investigated the combined impact of sea-level rise and increased storm intensity on the sediment budget of a salt marsh. This study investigates marsh resilience under the combined impact of various storm surge (0 m, 0.25 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 2.0 m, 3.0 m and 4.0 m) and sea-level (+0 m, +0.3 m, +0.5 m, +0.8 m and +1.0 m) scenarios by using a sediment budget approach and the hydrodynamic model Delft3D. The Ribble Estuary, North-West England, whose salt marshes have been anthropogenically restored and have a high economic and environmental value, has been chosen as test case. We conclude that storm surges can positively contribute to the resilience of the salt marsh and estuarine system by promoting flood dominance and by triggering a net import of sediment. Conversely, sea-level rise can threaten the stability of the marsh by promoting ebb dominance and triggering a net export of sediment. Our results suggest that storm surges have a general tendency to counteract the decrease in sediment budget caused by sea-level rise. The timing of the storm surge relative to high or low tide, the duration of the surge, the change in tidal range and vegetation presence can also cause minor changes in the sediment budget.@en

Salt marshes provide valuable nature-based, low-cost defences protecting against coastal flooding and erosion. Storm sedimentation can improve the resilience of salt marshes to accelerating rates of sea-level rise, which poses a threat to salt marsh survival worldwide. It is therefore important to be able to accurately detect the frequency of storm activity in longer-term sediment records to quantify how storms contribute to salt marsh resilience. Luminescence is able to infer how long mineral grains were exposed to sunlight prior to burial (e.g., the presence or absence of sediment processing). This study used sediment cores collected from the Ribble Estuary, North West England, to show that luminescence properties of sand-sized K-feldspar grains can diagnose the differential modes of deposition across intertidal settings (i.e., sandflat, mudflat and salt marsh) in longer-term sediment records by detecting the variability in sediment bleaching potential between settings (i.e., sediment exposure to sunlight), thus establishing a framework for the interpretation of luminescence properties of intertidal sediments. It then used modern sediment samples collected before and after a storm event to show how such properties can diagnose changes in sediment processing (i.e., bleaching potential) of mudflat sediments caused by storm activity, despite no changes in sediment composition being recorded by geochemical and particle size distribution analyses. This new luminescence approach can be applied to longer-term sediment records to reveal (and date) changes in the environment of deposition and/or depositional dynamics where there is no obvious stratigraphic evidence of such.@en

Salt marshes are ecosystems with significant economic and environmental value. However, the accelerating rate of sea-level rise is a significant threat to these ecosystems. Storms significantly contribute to the sediment budget of salt marshes, playing a critical role in salt marsh survival to sea-level rise. There are, however, uncertainties on the extent to which storms contribute sediments to different areas of marsh platforms (e.g., outer marsh vs marsh interior) and on the sediment sources that storms draw on (e.g., offshore vs nearshore). This study uses field analyses from an eight-month field campaign in the Ribble Estuary, North-West England, to understand storms' influence on the sediment supply to different marsh areas and whether storms can deliver new material onto the salt marsh platform which would otherwise not be sourced in fair-weather conditions. Field data from sediment traps indicate that storm activity caused an increase in inorganic sediment supply to the whole salt marsh platform, especially benefitting the marsh interior. Geochemistry and particle size distribution analysis indicate that the majority of the sediment supplied to the salt marsh platform during the stormy periods was generated by an increase in erosion and resuspension of mudflat and tidal creek sediments, while only a minimal contribution was given by the sediments transported from outside the intertidal system. This suggests that, in the long term, storms will promote salt marsh vertical accretion but might simultaneously reduce the overall larger-scale sediment availability with implications for the marsh lateral retreat.@en

Salt marshes are ecosystems with significant economic and environmental value. They provide numerous ecosystem services and act as natural coastal defences by buffering storm waves and stabilising sediments (Leonardi et al., 2016). However, with accelerating rate in sea-level rise, possible increases in storm intensity and increasing land reclamation, it is not clear whether salt marshes will be able to retain their resilience. The current paradigm is that a positive sediment budget supports the survival and accretion of salt marshes while a negative sediment budget causes marsh degradation (Ganju et al. 2015). Here we present the results of a series of studies that used a sediment budget approach and an integration of modelling and paleoenvironmental analysis to investigate the resilience of estuaries and salt marshes to rise in sea-level, change in storm activity and anthropogenic interventions. The Ribble Estuary, North-West England, was used as a test case, as it is one of the largest salt marsh systems in Europe, it was subject to several anthropogenic interventions (e. g. embankment construction) and it was anthropogenically restored through managed realignment to provide coastal protection against flooding (Pontee et al., 2014). The various processes were investigated using the hydrodynamic model Delft3D to simulate the estuary morpho-dynamics under selected scenarios, and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), geochemistry and particle size analysis to reconstruct the past evolution and adaptation of the estuary morphology. Results showed that sea-level rise threatens estuary and marsh stability by promoting ebb dominance and triggering a net export of sediment. Conversely, storm surges promote flood dominance and trigger a net import of sediment, therefore aiding the resilience of the system. Storms with the highest intensities also have the potential to counteract the negative impact of sea-level rise by masking its effects on the sediment budget. The addition of embankments, on the other hand, can further promote ebb dominance in the system and intensify sediment export, further threatening marsh stability.@en

Salt marshes are valuable ecosystems that provide numerous services and act as natural coastal defences by buffering storm waves and stabilising sediments. However, it is not clear whether they will be able to retain their resilience with accelerating rate in sea-level rise, possible increases in storm intensity, increasing land reclamation and changes in sediment supply. The current paradigm is that a positive sediment budget supports the survival and accretion of salt marshes while a negative sediment budget causes marsh degradation. Here we present the results of two studies (Pannozzo et al., 2021a,b; Pannozzo et al., 2021c) that used an integration of modelling and paleoenvironmental analysis and a sediment budget approach to investigate the resilience of estuaries and salt marshes to projected rise in sea-level, possible increases in storm activity, existing anthropogenic disturbance and natural sediment supply. The studies were conducted using the Ribble Estuary - North-West England - as a test case, the hydrodynamic model Delft3D to simulate the estuary morpho-dynamics under selected scenarios, and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), geochemistry and particle size distribution analysis to reconstruct the past evolution and adaptation of the estuary morphology. Pannozzo et al. (2021a,b) showed that sea-level rise threatens estuary and marsh stability by promoting ebb dominance and triggering a net export of sediment. Conversely, storm surges aid the resilience of the system by promoting flood dominance and triggering a net import of sediment and have the potential to counteract the negative impact of sea-level rise by masking its effects on the sediment budget. Pannozzo et al. (2021c) showed that the addition of embankments can further promote ebb dominance in the system and intensify sediment export, further threatening marsh stability. This latest effect, however, becomes negligible with high natural sediment supply to the system.@en

There are still numerous uncertainties over the influence of anthropogenic interventions on salt marsh dynamics. This study uses the Ribble Estuary as a test case and an integrated approach of numerical modeling and paleoenvironmental analysis to investigate the contribution of embankment construction to long-term marsh accretion. Accretion rates derived using optically stimulated luminescence dating (OSL) were combined with a multi-proxy paleoenvironmental investigation on sediment cores extracted from the salt marsh, the mobile seafloor of the central Irish Sea and the river catchment area. These analyses provided a first evolutionary perspective on the Ribble Estuary preceding any management interventions. The paleoenvironmental analyses were then compared to simulations conducted using the hydrodynamic model Delft3D to investigate the effects of embankment construction on estuarine hydrodynamics and morphodynamics of the salt marsh over the period constrained by the OSL. The numerical simulations showed that embankments were responsible for an overall intensification of the ebb currents in the system which promoted sediment export. The paleoenvironmental analyses showed that the marsh has been accreting at a rate of 4.61 to 0.86 cm yr−1 over the last ca. 190 years and that the high sedimentation rate was caused by a naturally high rate of sediment supply. The model-data integration showed that the effects of the embankment construction on sediment transport did not compromise the long-term resilience of the salt marsh because of the high rates of sediment supply and the river dredging which enhanced the flood dominance of the tide near the tidal flat.@en

Salt marshes are ecosystems with significant economic and environmental value. With accelerating rate in sea-level rise, it is not clear whether salt marshes will be able to retain their resilience. Field and numerical investigations have shown that storms play a significant role in marsh accretion and that they might be crucial to salt marsh survival to sea-level rise. Here we present the results from two studies (Pannozzo et al., 2021a,b; Pannozzo et al., 2022) that used numerical and field investigations to quantify the impact of storm surges on the sediment budget of salt marshes within different sea-level scenarios and to investigate how sediment transport pathways determine marsh response to storm sediment input. The Ribble Estuary, North-West England, was used as a test case. The hydrodynamic model Delft3D was used to simulate the estuary morpho-dynamics under selected storm surge and sea-level scenarios. In addition, sediment samples collected with a monthly frequency from different areas of the marsh were analysed with sediments collected from possible sources to integrate field observations with the numerical investigation of sediment transport pathways during stormy and non-stormy conditions. Results showed that, although sea-level rise threatens the estuary and marsh stability by promoting ebb dominance and triggering a net export of sediment, storm surges promote flood dominance and trigger a net import of sediment, increasing the resilience of the estuary and salt marsh to sea-level rise, with the highest surges having the potential to offset sea-level effects on sediment transport and sediment budget of the system. However, although storm sediment input resulted to be significant for the accretion of the marsh platform and particularly for the marsh interior, data showed that storms mainly remobilise sediments already present in the intertidal system and only to a minor extent transport new sediment from external sources.@en

Salt marshes are valuable ecosystems that provide numerous services and act as natural coastal defences by buffering storm waves and stabilising sediments. However, it is not clear whether they will be able to retain their resilience with accelerating rate in sea-level rise, possible increases in storm intensity and increasing land reclamation. The current paradigm is that a positive sediment budget supports the survival and accretion of salt marshes while a negative sediment budget causes marsh degradation. Here we present the results of a series of studies that used an integration of modelling and paleoenvironmental analysis and a sediment budget approach to investigate the resilience of estuaries and salt marshes to projected rise in sea-level, possible increases in storm activity and existing anthropogenic disturbance. The studies were conducted using the Ribble Estuary-NorthWest England-as a test case, the hydrodynamic model Delft3D to simulate the estuary morpho-dynamics under selected scenarios, and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), geochemistry and particle size distribution analysis to reconstruct the past evolution and adaptation of the estuary morphology. Results showed that sea-level rise threatens estuary and marsh stability by promoting ebb dominance and triggering a net export of sediment. Conversely, storm surges aid the resilience of the system by promoting flood dominance and triggering a net import of sediment and have the potential to counteract the negative impact of sea-level rise by masking its effects on the sediment budget. The addition of embankments, on the other hand, can further promote ebb dominance in the system and intensify sediment export, further threatening marsh stability.@en

Salt marshes are widely recognised as ecosystems with high economic and environmental value. However, it is still unclear how salt marshes will respond to the combined impact of future sea-level rise and possible increases in storm intensity (Schuerch et al. 2013). This study investigates marsh resilience under the combined impact of various storm surge and sea-level scenarios by using a sediment budget approach. The current paradigm is that a positive sediment budget supports the accretion of salt marshes and, therefore, its survival, while a negative sediment budget causes marsh degradation (Ganju et al. 2015). The Ribble Estuary, North-West England, was used as test case, and the hydrodynamic model Delft3D was used to simulate the response of the salt marsh system to the above scenarios. We conclude that the resilience of salt marshes and estuarine systems is enhanced under the effect of storm surges, as they promote flood dominance and trigger a net import of sediment. Conversely, sea-level rise threatens marsh stability, by promoting ebb dominance and triggering a net export of sediment. Ultimately, when storm surge and sea-level scenarios are combined, results show that storms with the highest intensities have the potential to counteract the negative impact of sea-level rise by masking its effects on the sediment budget.@en

Salt marshes are ecosystems with significant economic and environmental value. They provide numerous services, including nutrient removal, habitat provision and carbon sequestration (Barbier et al., 2011). They are also widely recognised as nature-based solutions for coastal defence due to their ability to buffer storm waves (Leonardi et al., 2018). However, it is still unclear how the combined impact of future sea-level rise and possible increases in storm intensity will affect salt marsh resilience (Schuerch et al. 2013). It has been observed that salt marshes can survive sea-level rise if sediment supply and organogenic production are high enough to allow marsh accretion (Kirwan et al., 2010, 2016). However, increasing rates of sea-level rise can lead to marsh drowning by increasing the accommodation space and the amount of sediment inputs required for marsh stability (Kirwan et al., 2010; Ganju et al., 2017). Marsh degradation can also be caused by lateral erosion triggered by wind waves, such as the ones generated during storms (Leonardi et al., 2016; Li et al., 2019). However, several studies have showed that, on the other hand, overwash by storm surges can support marsh resilience by delivering significant amount of sediment to marsh platforms (Walters and Kirwan, 2016; Castagno et al., 2018). This study investigates marsh resilience under the combined impact of various storm surge and sea-level scenarios by using a sediment budget approach. The current paradigm is that a positive sediment budget supports the survival and accretion of salt marshes, while a negative sediment budget causes marsh degradation (Ganju et al. 2015). The Ribble Estuary, North-West England, was used as a case study.@en