Deployment of renewable energy is essential to reach a carbon neutral economy. Offshore wind farms have caught the interest of many developed countries since they are an essential source of green energy. The interest of this thesis lays in the design of the foundation used for offshore wind farms, in particular the interaction between the monopiles and the scour protection layer. An optimised one-stage installation process for the scour protection is investigated, which consists of first placing the rock armour and then driving the monopile through the entire scour protection layer. This is an efficient method to reduce the installation time and the operational cost. The purpose of this research is to identify the limitations which are related to the penetration of the monopile through the stone armour. The scour protection material is composed of large diameter rocks, which can hinder the penetration of the pile, or even damage the tip of the pile. A restricting ratio of the mean size of the rock (d50) to the thickness of the monopile wall (w) is explored, as well as an investigation of the effect of penetration resistance on different material and geometry characteristics. The first research method employed is a literature study, which proves that the analytical formulation of the axial capacity provided by the available standards is inappropriate for the application of this thesis. Thus, two other research methods are identified, which include designing an experimental small-scale test and a Discrete Element Model (DEM) of a penetration test.

Dams and reservoirs pose safety concerns to society worldwide. In case of a disaster, the water impounded in the reservoir escapes and destroys everything in its path. Reasons for failure range from geology, hydrology and seismicity, to design problems, lack of maintenance and poor field investigation. Prior cases show that various dams gave away mainly due to geological causes, so there is a particular interest to see how the local terrain features could influence the longevity of the structure. Three historical case studies are discussed in order to emphasize the impact of geology regarding dam failure. The Saint Francis Dam is a prime example of poor site investigation, where the lack of knowledge on the foundation rock led to the rupture of the gravity dam. The Malpasset Dam gave away predominantly due to underestimated effects of the uplift, nevertheless, the geologists were unaware of an active fault system and the mechanical properties of the rock mass. The Baldwin Hills Reservoir comes with a more thorough site investigation, yet still, due to earth movements, the water from the reservoir infiltrated through the embankment. Therefore, geological features at the site need to be included in the design options of the dam in order to ensure a safe, feasible and economical project. With respect to the way we build nowadays, engineers have learnt important lessons from past experiences, however, issues such as ageing of the structures and the unpredictability of geology and weather, could still influence the safety of modern dams.