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K.G. Gavin
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Thermomechanical Behavior of an Anchored Quay Wall
Field Observations and Finite Element Analysis
Recent field measurements have revealed that the behavior of quay walls is influenced by air and seawater temperature variations. However, the underlying mechanisms remain insufficiently understood, and current geotechnical quay wall design practices typically neglect thermal effects. This study presents a thermomechanical finite element analysis of an anchored quay wall equipped with a relieving platform at the Port of Rotterdam, supported by several years of field monitoring. The structure consists of a steel combined wall and a reinforced concrete L-shaped front wall. Continuous measurements of wall displacements, anchor forces, and temperatures were compared with the outcome of a numerical finite element model. The study shows that the numerical model was able to reproduce seasonal variations in anchor force and lateral wall displacements induced by temperature changes, aligning well with field observations. Sensitivity analyses revealed that thermal effects amplify with increasing soil-retaining height because of the large exposure to seawater temperature fluctuations. Moreover, the thermal expansion coefficient of soil has a substantially stronger influence on anchor force variations than thermal conductivity. Climate change-related temperature increases further intensify these responses, indicating notable long-Term implications for quay wall performance. The findings provide insight into the observed thermomechanical behavior of the investigated quay wall and show that thermal loading can contribute to the wall response.
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Recent field measurements have revealed that the behavior of quay walls is influenced by air and seawater temperature variations. However, the underlying mechanisms remain insufficiently understood, and current geotechnical quay wall design practices typically neglect thermal effects. This study presents a thermomechanical finite element analysis of an anchored quay wall equipped with a relieving platform at the Port of Rotterdam, supported by several years of field monitoring. The structure consists of a steel combined wall and a reinforced concrete L-shaped front wall. Continuous measurements of wall displacements, anchor forces, and temperatures were compared with the outcome of a numerical finite element model. The study shows that the numerical model was able to reproduce seasonal variations in anchor force and lateral wall displacements induced by temperature changes, aligning well with field observations. Sensitivity analyses revealed that thermal effects amplify with increasing soil-retaining height because of the large exposure to seawater temperature fluctuations. Moreover, the thermal expansion coefficient of soil has a substantially stronger influence on anchor force variations than thermal conductivity. Climate change-related temperature increases further intensify these responses, indicating notable long-Term implications for quay wall performance. The findings provide insight into the observed thermomechanical behavior of the investigated quay wall and show that thermal loading can contribute to the wall response.
As open-ended steel pipe piles increase in size, efficient installation methods ensuring sufficient bearing capacity are crucial. A combination of vibratory and impact driving is commonly used to install these piles. However, compression load tests on large-diameter piles installed in this way are scarce, questioning the reliability of design methods for axial bearing capacity. To investigate, four 1·22 m dia. open-ended pipe piles with fibre optic strain sensors were installed and tested at Maasvlakte 2, the Netherlands. All piles were vibratory driven to a depth of 29·5 m; two were then impact driven an additional 3·5 m and two an additional 8·5 m. Static compression load tests were conducted 30 or 70 days post-installation. Although the piles remained largely or fully coring during installation, all experienced ‘locking-up’ of the plug under static loading. The derived resistances were compared with the ‘Unified CPT-based method for driven piles in sand’. This method is intended to capture the capacities of fully impact-driven piles at around 14 days after installation, with further shaft capacity gains likely thereafter. The tests revealed axial resistances that increased over time, matching or exceeding unified method predictions. These findings can impact the design and assessment of open-ended pipe piles.
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As open-ended steel pipe piles increase in size, efficient installation methods ensuring sufficient bearing capacity are crucial. A combination of vibratory and impact driving is commonly used to install these piles. However, compression load tests on large-diameter piles installed in this way are scarce, questioning the reliability of design methods for axial bearing capacity. To investigate, four 1·22 m dia. open-ended pipe piles with fibre optic strain sensors were installed and tested at Maasvlakte 2, the Netherlands. All piles were vibratory driven to a depth of 29·5 m; two were then impact driven an additional 3·5 m and two an additional 8·5 m. Static compression load tests were conducted 30 or 70 days post-installation. Although the piles remained largely or fully coring during installation, all experienced ‘locking-up’ of the plug under static loading. The derived resistances were compared with the ‘Unified CPT-based method for driven piles in sand’. This method is intended to capture the capacities of fully impact-driven piles at around 14 days after installation, with further shaft capacity gains likely thereafter. The tests revealed axial resistances that increased over time, matching or exceeding unified method predictions. These findings can impact the design and assessment of open-ended pipe piles.
Large-diameter driven piles are widely used as foundations for offshore wind turbines and platforms. During installation, unexpected pile running can result in rapid, uncontrolled penetration of the pile into the seabed due to the large self-weight. This paper assesses the risks of pile-running for large diameter driven piles in spatially variable soils using a procedure based on the American Petroleum Institute bearing capacity guidelines combined with Newton’s Second Law of Motion. This differs from conventional static bearing capacity analyses by calculating the pile velocity with depth. One-dimensional random fields are implemented to simulate downward spatially variable shear strengths. While fluctuations in shear strengths do not provide sizable impacts to pile shaft resistance at larger depths, end-bearing resistance variability can provide appreciable changes to pile running velocities and penetration depths. Results of the spatially variable formulation are compared with Large Deformation Finite Element simulation, providing strong agreement. Of particular importance is the conclusion that pile running analyses where soil variability is ignored can lead to unconservative estimates of velocity and depth profiles. The simplified probabilistic method for assessing heterogeneous soil properties is especially important, given that unexpected weak layers are one of the primary factors contributing to pile running.
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Large-diameter driven piles are widely used as foundations for offshore wind turbines and platforms. During installation, unexpected pile running can result in rapid, uncontrolled penetration of the pile into the seabed due to the large self-weight. This paper assesses the risks of pile-running for large diameter driven piles in spatially variable soils using a procedure based on the American Petroleum Institute bearing capacity guidelines combined with Newton’s Second Law of Motion. This differs from conventional static bearing capacity analyses by calculating the pile velocity with depth. One-dimensional random fields are implemented to simulate downward spatially variable shear strengths. While fluctuations in shear strengths do not provide sizable impacts to pile shaft resistance at larger depths, end-bearing resistance variability can provide appreciable changes to pile running velocities and penetration depths. Results of the spatially variable formulation are compared with Large Deformation Finite Element simulation, providing strong agreement. Of particular importance is the conclusion that pile running analyses where soil variability is ignored can lead to unconservative estimates of velocity and depth profiles. The simplified probabilistic method for assessing heterogeneous soil properties is especially important, given that unexpected weak layers are one of the primary factors contributing to pile running.
Corrosion-induced thickness loss in steel quay walls
Insights from long-term exposure measurements
Journal article
(2026)
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Federico Montali, Alfred Roubos, Marc Wormmeester, Kenneth Gavin, Cristina Jommi, Luca Flessati
Maritime ports are key components of global logistics networks, with steel quay walls providing berthing capacity and operational continuity. Their long-term structural performance is governed by corrosion driven by interactions between salinity, hydrodynamics, microbiological activity, and climatic conditions. Given that across Europe, many twentieth-century structures have exceeded their design life, reassessment of safety and residual capacity is essential. Conventional assessments typically use deterministic, uniform corrosion profiles based on simplified environmental classifications. In practice, however, field data show that corrosion is spatially variable, has short correlation lengths, and involves co-existing uniform and localised mechanisms. The scarcity of long-term, spatially detailed measurements has limited of site-specific deterioration models to be validated and included in design codes. This study analyses corrosion in steel quay walls at the Port of Rotterdam using ultrasonic thickness measurements and laboratory surface-morphology data. The database quantifies mean wall-thickness loss and spatial variability, enabling systematic comparison with design prescriptions. To interpret the observed variability, the study develops a stochastic corrosion representation based on random-fields, allowing explicit incorporation of spatial heterogeneity into structural assessments. The outcomes highlight the limitations of uniform corrosion assumptions and provide a basis for improved reliability evaluations and lifecycle-management strategies for ageing port infrastructure.
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Maritime ports are key components of global logistics networks, with steel quay walls providing berthing capacity and operational continuity. Their long-term structural performance is governed by corrosion driven by interactions between salinity, hydrodynamics, microbiological activity, and climatic conditions. Given that across Europe, many twentieth-century structures have exceeded their design life, reassessment of safety and residual capacity is essential. Conventional assessments typically use deterministic, uniform corrosion profiles based on simplified environmental classifications. In practice, however, field data show that corrosion is spatially variable, has short correlation lengths, and involves co-existing uniform and localised mechanisms. The scarcity of long-term, spatially detailed measurements has limited of site-specific deterioration models to be validated and included in design codes. This study analyses corrosion in steel quay walls at the Port of Rotterdam using ultrasonic thickness measurements and laboratory surface-morphology data. The database quantifies mean wall-thickness loss and spatial variability, enabling systematic comparison with design prescriptions. To interpret the observed variability, the study develops a stochastic corrosion representation based on random-fields, allowing explicit incorporation of spatial heterogeneity into structural assessments. The outcomes highlight the limitations of uniform corrosion assumptions and provide a basis for improved reliability evaluations and lifecycle-management strategies for ageing port infrastructure.
CLARION
Smart & sustainable climate resilient Quay Walls
In 2024, the CLARION Project was launched to enhance the resiliency and sustainability of port infrastructures and hinterland transport networks. This initiative brings together a multidisciplinary team of 20 partners from 11 European countries. CLARION aims to develop and implement innovative solutions to mitigate the impacts of climate change on port infrastructure through 10 dedicated pilot demonstrations, ensuring the transferability of results to other ports. This paper focuses on the pilot demonstration related to smart and sustainable quay walls. The primary aim of this demonstration is to reduce the carbon footprint of new quay walls while considering climate change impacts, extending the lifespan of existing quay walls by 25 years, improving functionality, and assessing resilience. Data from smart quay walls, fully equipped with advanced sensors and installed in the port of Rotterdam, were used to reduce uncertainties in finite element modelling and to develop a numerical digital twin of the structure. Machine learning techniques were employed to predict future stresses and forces using environmental data, such as tidal effects and temperature. The calibrated numerical digital twin can then be used to study the effects of climate change on quay-wall behaviour, including extreme water levels and temperature fluctuations. By embracing these pilot demonstrations, CLARION aims to contribute to Europe’s collective efforts to combat climate change and build a sustainable future. This aligns with the European Commission’s EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change and the European Green Deal, helping to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.
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In 2024, the CLARION Project was launched to enhance the resiliency and sustainability of port infrastructures and hinterland transport networks. This initiative brings together a multidisciplinary team of 20 partners from 11 European countries. CLARION aims to develop and implement innovative solutions to mitigate the impacts of climate change on port infrastructure through 10 dedicated pilot demonstrations, ensuring the transferability of results to other ports. This paper focuses on the pilot demonstration related to smart and sustainable quay walls. The primary aim of this demonstration is to reduce the carbon footprint of new quay walls while considering climate change impacts, extending the lifespan of existing quay walls by 25 years, improving functionality, and assessing resilience. Data from smart quay walls, fully equipped with advanced sensors and installed in the port of Rotterdam, were used to reduce uncertainties in finite element modelling and to develop a numerical digital twin of the structure. Machine learning techniques were employed to predict future stresses and forces using environmental data, such as tidal effects and temperature. The calibrated numerical digital twin can then be used to study the effects of climate change on quay-wall behaviour, including extreme water levels and temperature fluctuations. By embracing these pilot demonstrations, CLARION aims to contribute to Europe’s collective efforts to combat climate change and build a sustainable future. This aligns with the European Commission’s EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change and the European Green Deal, helping to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.
Screw displacement piles are designed to maximise soil displacement, while minimising the noise and vibration generated from installation. While these benefits have increased the uptake of screw displacement piles in the industry, divergences in design standards means there is no definitive consensus on the axial response of these piles. To address this, a high-quality database of load tests on screw displacement piles is presented in this paper – the largest of its kind in the published literature. Both instrumented and uninstrumented records are used to compare four different cone penetration test-based design methods for screw displacement piles in granular soils. The instrumented data show that existing design methods tend to overestimate the base capacity of screw displacement piles yet underestimate their shaft capacity. A linear best fit to the instrumented data shows improved predictions of the total pile capacity when compared to both instrumented and uninstrumented records. However, variability in predictive performance suggests that installation-related mechanisms may influence the overall capacity of these piles, particularly piles with an oversized displacement body.
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Screw displacement piles are designed to maximise soil displacement, while minimising the noise and vibration generated from installation. While these benefits have increased the uptake of screw displacement piles in the industry, divergences in design standards means there is no definitive consensus on the axial response of these piles. To address this, a high-quality database of load tests on screw displacement piles is presented in this paper – the largest of its kind in the published literature. Both instrumented and uninstrumented records are used to compare four different cone penetration test-based design methods for screw displacement piles in granular soils. The instrumented data show that existing design methods tend to overestimate the base capacity of screw displacement piles yet underestimate their shaft capacity. A linear best fit to the instrumented data shows improved predictions of the total pile capacity when compared to both instrumented and uninstrumented records. However, variability in predictive performance suggests that installation-related mechanisms may influence the overall capacity of these piles, particularly piles with an oversized displacement body.
Conference paper
(2025)
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S. Banaei Moghadam, K. Duffy, L. Flessati, K. Gavin, C.J. Stokman, Jort van Wijk
To reduce noise and minimize fatigue damage during pile driving, a new installation method has been developed that differs from conventional pile driving with high-frequency impact blows. This method prolongs the hammer blow, causing a slower pressing force. As a result, it reduces stress waves and imposes a quasi-static loading process on the pile. Consequently, this approach may induce different soil response phenomena compared to conventional pile driving. For instance, friction fatigue is a well-known phenomenon whereby the shaft resistance during installation is affected by cyclic loading and geometrical effects. With this in mind, this paper presents field tests on a pile installed with this new piling method in the port of Rotterdam. Using this field test data, this research will explore the differences in soil response between the prolonged-blow installation technique and conventional driving methods, focusing on friction fatigue.
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To reduce noise and minimize fatigue damage during pile driving, a new installation method has been developed that differs from conventional pile driving with high-frequency impact blows. This method prolongs the hammer blow, causing a slower pressing force. As a result, it reduces stress waves and imposes a quasi-static loading process on the pile. Consequently, this approach may induce different soil response phenomena compared to conventional pile driving. For instance, friction fatigue is a well-known phenomenon whereby the shaft resistance during installation is affected by cyclic loading and geometrical effects. With this in mind, this paper presents field tests on a pile installed with this new piling method in the port of Rotterdam. Using this field test data, this research will explore the differences in soil response between the prolonged-blow installation technique and conventional driving methods, focusing on friction fatigue.
Conference paper
(2025)
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Aligi Foglia, Zefeng Zhou, Ken Gavin, Athanasios Kolios, Noor Laham, Yufei Wang, Oscar Polanía, David van den Berg, Christian Linde Olsen, Benjamin Cerfontaine, David White, Susan Gourvenec, Miguel Cabrera
The Horizon Europe research project TAILWIND aims to advance station-keeping system technologies for floating offshore wind farms. This paper marks the first steps in the project putting forward economic, environmental, and technological key performance indicators to assist the selection and development of anchors. Scenarios in terms of location, soil profile, and floater are defined. Anchor loading histories are obtained through coupled load simulations and used to design typical anchors. Key performance indicators describing three sustainability aspects – economic, environmental, and technological – are proposed to assess the industrial feasibility of each anchor type. The study has two outcomes. Firstly, sustainability key performance indicators that can guide the selection of anchor technologies for future floating offshore wind development are proposed. Secondly, guidance on the most promising anchor for further development via experimental testing and numerical modelling within the TAILWIND project is provided.
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The Horizon Europe research project TAILWIND aims to advance station-keeping system technologies for floating offshore wind farms. This paper marks the first steps in the project putting forward economic, environmental, and technological key performance indicators to assist the selection and development of anchors. Scenarios in terms of location, soil profile, and floater are defined. Anchor loading histories are obtained through coupled load simulations and used to design typical anchors. Key performance indicators describing three sustainability aspects – economic, environmental, and technological – are proposed to assess the industrial feasibility of each anchor type. The study has two outcomes. Firstly, sustainability key performance indicators that can guide the selection of anchor technologies for future floating offshore wind development are proposed. Secondly, guidance on the most promising anchor for further development via experimental testing and numerical modelling within the TAILWIND project is provided.
Drag anchor behaviour in soft clay deposits
Model investigation in transparent clay surrogate and analytical predictions
Journal article
(2025)
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Satyajeet Nanda, J. Fanning, V. Sivakumar, K. Gavin, S. Donohue, S. Tripathy, J. Black
As the offshore energy industry begins to develop wind farms in areas of deeper water, the use of traditional foundations such as shallow foundation and driven hollow steel tube piles becomes uneconomical. The deployment of floating turbines and continued development of novel/efficient anchoring systems for these structures will be an important factor in the continued growth of the sector. This paper presents an investigation carried out as part of a proof-of-concept for a novel “bi-wing anchor”. This design will allow a plate anchor to be dropped through the water column and then penetrate the seabed under its own weight. The anchor will then be dragged causing it to embed further into the seabed and provide a greater holding capacity. This paper focuses on experimental as well as analysis of the drag embedment behaviour during the installation and pullout phases. The physical modelling investigations were carried out in a transparent clay-surrogate which enabled observation of the anchor’s orientation during installation. The predictions using analytical modelling showed good agreement with the observed behaviour at varying embedment ratios.
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As the offshore energy industry begins to develop wind farms in areas of deeper water, the use of traditional foundations such as shallow foundation and driven hollow steel tube piles becomes uneconomical. The deployment of floating turbines and continued development of novel/efficient anchoring systems for these structures will be an important factor in the continued growth of the sector. This paper presents an investigation carried out as part of a proof-of-concept for a novel “bi-wing anchor”. This design will allow a plate anchor to be dropped through the water column and then penetrate the seabed under its own weight. The anchor will then be dragged causing it to embed further into the seabed and provide a greater holding capacity. This paper focuses on experimental as well as analysis of the drag embedment behaviour during the installation and pullout phases. The physical modelling investigations were carried out in a transparent clay-surrogate which enabled observation of the anchor’s orientation during installation. The predictions using analytical modelling showed good agreement with the observed behaviour at varying embedment ratios.
Quay walls are often assessed using numerical models to capture highly nonlinear soil behavior and the complex interactions between foundation elements. The input parameters of these models are usually derived from advanced laboratory tests; however, capturing the spatial variation in these properties across large quay walls can prove inefficient and costly. Moreover, the difficulty in performing full-scale load tests or small-scale physical models complicates the validation of the numerical model. This paper addresses these challenges by
using monitoring data during the construction of a deep-sea quay wall in the Port of Rotterdam. The quay wall, installed primarily in sand, consists of an anchored retaining wall with a concrete relieving platform. During dredging in front of the wall, fiber optic sensors and inclinometers measured large changes in anchor forces and wall deflection. These changes were then compared to the predictions of a finite element model with the hardening soil model with small strain stiffness constitutive model, with the input parameters derived from cone penetration tests (CPT). The results from the CPT-based numerical model were in good agreement with the measured data, demonstrating the feasibility of integrating numerical modelling and field monitoring while supporting the use of the CPT to calibrate advanced soil constitutive models. The validated model provides a reliable basis against which hypothetical adaptation or remediation measures to the wall can be assessed, such as changes in the dredged seabed depth and surcharge loading. ...
using monitoring data during the construction of a deep-sea quay wall in the Port of Rotterdam. The quay wall, installed primarily in sand, consists of an anchored retaining wall with a concrete relieving platform. During dredging in front of the wall, fiber optic sensors and inclinometers measured large changes in anchor forces and wall deflection. These changes were then compared to the predictions of a finite element model with the hardening soil model with small strain stiffness constitutive model, with the input parameters derived from cone penetration tests (CPT). The results from the CPT-based numerical model were in good agreement with the measured data, demonstrating the feasibility of integrating numerical modelling and field monitoring while supporting the use of the CPT to calibrate advanced soil constitutive models. The validated model provides a reliable basis against which hypothetical adaptation or remediation measures to the wall can be assessed, such as changes in the dredged seabed depth and surcharge loading. ...
Quay walls are often assessed using numerical models to capture highly nonlinear soil behavior and the complex interactions between foundation elements. The input parameters of these models are usually derived from advanced laboratory tests; however, capturing the spatial variation in these properties across large quay walls can prove inefficient and costly. Moreover, the difficulty in performing full-scale load tests or small-scale physical models complicates the validation of the numerical model. This paper addresses these challenges by
using monitoring data during the construction of a deep-sea quay wall in the Port of Rotterdam. The quay wall, installed primarily in sand, consists of an anchored retaining wall with a concrete relieving platform. During dredging in front of the wall, fiber optic sensors and inclinometers measured large changes in anchor forces and wall deflection. These changes were then compared to the predictions of a finite element model with the hardening soil model with small strain stiffness constitutive model, with the input parameters derived from cone penetration tests (CPT). The results from the CPT-based numerical model were in good agreement with the measured data, demonstrating the feasibility of integrating numerical modelling and field monitoring while supporting the use of the CPT to calibrate advanced soil constitutive models. The validated model provides a reliable basis against which hypothetical adaptation or remediation measures to the wall can be assessed, such as changes in the dredged seabed depth and surcharge loading.
using monitoring data during the construction of a deep-sea quay wall in the Port of Rotterdam. The quay wall, installed primarily in sand, consists of an anchored retaining wall with a concrete relieving platform. During dredging in front of the wall, fiber optic sensors and inclinometers measured large changes in anchor forces and wall deflection. These changes were then compared to the predictions of a finite element model with the hardening soil model with small strain stiffness constitutive model, with the input parameters derived from cone penetration tests (CPT). The results from the CPT-based numerical model were in good agreement with the measured data, demonstrating the feasibility of integrating numerical modelling and field monitoring while supporting the use of the CPT to calibrate advanced soil constitutive models. The validated model provides a reliable basis against which hypothetical adaptation or remediation measures to the wall can be assessed, such as changes in the dredged seabed depth and surcharge loading.
Conference paper
(2025)
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A. Sharma, A. Peccin da Silva, D. de Lange, Y. Jafarian, K.G. Gavin, J. Kenkhuis
As the global transition to renewable energy accelerates, ensuring the reliability of foundations in offshore structures is increasingly important. In the context of floating wind structures, pile foundations can be used as anchor points for station keeping against significant cyclic loading. Tubular piles have proven reliable while offering a high tensile load capacity, but accurate predictions of pile tensile capacity and stability without extensive testing are essential to avoid overconservative design. This paper presents findings from the Tubular Pile Pull-out Testing (TPPT) Joint Industry Project, which involved field testing on tubular steel piles under monotonic and multi-stage cyclic loading at the Port of Rotterdam. This paper primarily discusses the comparison between predicted and measured pile capacity and stability under cyclic loading. The predictions were based on interaction charts recommended in the literature for piles under tensile loading. Pile responses in interaction charts are classified as stable, metastable, or unstable based on their displacement responses to the applied cyclic loading in relation to the static capacity. The results observed in the field tests are compared with the stability response previously defined in the literature. In particular, the TPPT testing programme included tests near the chart zone where stable and metastable curves converge towards the unstable zone, where the proximity between curves leads to uncertainties in determining pile stability.
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As the global transition to renewable energy accelerates, ensuring the reliability of foundations in offshore structures is increasingly important. In the context of floating wind structures, pile foundations can be used as anchor points for station keeping against significant cyclic loading. Tubular piles have proven reliable while offering a high tensile load capacity, but accurate predictions of pile tensile capacity and stability without extensive testing are essential to avoid overconservative design. This paper presents findings from the Tubular Pile Pull-out Testing (TPPT) Joint Industry Project, which involved field testing on tubular steel piles under monotonic and multi-stage cyclic loading at the Port of Rotterdam. This paper primarily discusses the comparison between predicted and measured pile capacity and stability under cyclic loading. The predictions were based on interaction charts recommended in the literature for piles under tensile loading. Pile responses in interaction charts are classified as stable, metastable, or unstable based on their displacement responses to the applied cyclic loading in relation to the static capacity. The results observed in the field tests are compared with the stability response previously defined in the literature. In particular, the TPPT testing programme included tests near the chart zone where stable and metastable curves converge towards the unstable zone, where the proximity between curves leads to uncertainties in determining pile stability.
Conference paper
(2025)
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H. Köpüklü, Kenneth Gavin, V. V. Ganapathiraman
The majority of the offshore wind turbines constructed to date are founded on monopile foundations. As monopiles’ diameters have increased to 10m and above, there is an increasing concern over the impact of noise generated by using impact hammers. There are several innovative concepts for pile installation which result in reduced noise and vibrations. A number of these concepts include conventional vibratory hammers to overcome the soil resistance and allow installation to the design depth. A driveability assessment is required to provide the correct specification for vibratory hammers. An essential component of a driveability model is to estimate the static resistance to driving (SRD). SRD is analogous to the axial capacity of a pile during driving. It represents the cumulative increase in the shaft capacity associated with further pile penetration and also encompasses a base resistance that is associated with each driving increment. In this paper, a number of published cases of vibro installations are compiled and compared to predictions using commercial software GRLWEAP implemented with a number of SRD models. The pile diameters consider a range from 4.0m to 6.5m and include piles installed in the Dutch sector of the North Sea, where a number of offshore wind farms are currently under construction. Our study assesses the predictive capability of these models and shows that the soil resistance is sensitive to the penetration speed of the pile.
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The majority of the offshore wind turbines constructed to date are founded on monopile foundations. As monopiles’ diameters have increased to 10m and above, there is an increasing concern over the impact of noise generated by using impact hammers. There are several innovative concepts for pile installation which result in reduced noise and vibrations. A number of these concepts include conventional vibratory hammers to overcome the soil resistance and allow installation to the design depth. A driveability assessment is required to provide the correct specification for vibratory hammers. An essential component of a driveability model is to estimate the static resistance to driving (SRD). SRD is analogous to the axial capacity of a pile during driving. It represents the cumulative increase in the shaft capacity associated with further pile penetration and also encompasses a base resistance that is associated with each driving increment. In this paper, a number of published cases of vibro installations are compiled and compared to predictions using commercial software GRLWEAP implemented with a number of SRD models. The pile diameters consider a range from 4.0m to 6.5m and include piles installed in the Dutch sector of the North Sea, where a number of offshore wind farms are currently under construction. Our study assesses the predictive capability of these models and shows that the soil resistance is sensitive to the penetration speed of the pile.
Serviceability limit state design
Base response of screw injection piles
Screw injection piles are a type of screw displacement pile that use grout injection to displace soil around the pile tip and to reduce the installation resistance on the pile. The process results in lower noise and vibrations compared to a driven pile, whilst creating displacement mechanisms considered beneficial to the pile’s capacity. Yet while these benefits have increased the uptake of screw injection piles in the industry, divergences in design standards means there is no consensus on the axial response of these piles, particularly with regards to their load-displacement response for serviceability limit state design. This paper takes two settlement prediction methods for sandy soils and compares their performance to instrumented load tests on screw injection piles from two different sites. In summary, the results suggest that screw injection piles develop little to no prestressing around the pile base during installation into sand, and a stiffness-based formulation could accurately estimate the pile displacement at both test sites. The formulation presents an effective way of predicting pile displacement, allowing for more benefit to be gained out of proof load tests and providing an efficient means of validating the in-situ pile capacity after installation.
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Screw injection piles are a type of screw displacement pile that use grout injection to displace soil around the pile tip and to reduce the installation resistance on the pile. The process results in lower noise and vibrations compared to a driven pile, whilst creating displacement mechanisms considered beneficial to the pile’s capacity. Yet while these benefits have increased the uptake of screw injection piles in the industry, divergences in design standards means there is no consensus on the axial response of these piles, particularly with regards to their load-displacement response for serviceability limit state design. This paper takes two settlement prediction methods for sandy soils and compares their performance to instrumented load tests on screw injection piles from two different sites. In summary, the results suggest that screw injection piles develop little to no prestressing around the pile base during installation into sand, and a stiffness-based formulation could accurately estimate the pile displacement at both test sites. The formulation presents an effective way of predicting pile displacement, allowing for more benefit to be gained out of proof load tests and providing an efficient means of validating the in-situ pile capacity after installation.
Journal article
(2025)
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Qiang Li, Qunchao Ma, Xinglei Cheng, Kenneth Gavin, Luke J. Prendergast, Amin Askarinejad
Extensive research has focused on quantifying the loading behaviour of 1g (g, gravitational acceleration rate) installed open-ended piles using centrifuges. However, the influence of installation stress level on loading behaviour is often ignored, with ramifications for the accuracy and validity of results. In this paper, a loading apparatus is developed to allow in-flight jacking of piles followed directly by vertical or lateral loading, without needing to stop the centrifuge, which facilitates maintaining the installation-related stress state. Model piles are installed at 50g and 1g, and the vertical and lateral responses are analyzed. The effect of pile installation stress level on the initial stiffness, resistance, and soil plug behaviour, is investigated. Results indicate that installation stress level has a more significant and non-uniform effect on pile vertical behaviour than lateral behaviour. Piles that are not fully installed at 50g can mobilize the same vertical resistance as those fully installed at 50g, provided they experience a minimum of 2D (D, pile diameter) in-flight installation length. The arching effect caused by soil plugging, and the denser sand state surrounding the pile toe, may provide higher vertical and lateral resistance for piles installed at 50g compared to those installed at 1g.
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Extensive research has focused on quantifying the loading behaviour of 1g (g, gravitational acceleration rate) installed open-ended piles using centrifuges. However, the influence of installation stress level on loading behaviour is often ignored, with ramifications for the accuracy and validity of results. In this paper, a loading apparatus is developed to allow in-flight jacking of piles followed directly by vertical or lateral loading, without needing to stop the centrifuge, which facilitates maintaining the installation-related stress state. Model piles are installed at 50g and 1g, and the vertical and lateral responses are analyzed. The effect of pile installation stress level on the initial stiffness, resistance, and soil plug behaviour, is investigated. Results indicate that installation stress level has a more significant and non-uniform effect on pile vertical behaviour than lateral behaviour. Piles that are not fully installed at 50g can mobilize the same vertical resistance as those fully installed at 50g, provided they experience a minimum of 2D (D, pile diameter) in-flight installation length. The arching effect caused by soil plugging, and the denser sand state surrounding the pile toe, may provide higher vertical and lateral resistance for piles installed at 50g compared to those installed at 1g.
Conference paper
(2025)
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M. Konstantinou, A. R. Piedrabuena, N. Hellebrekers, A.S. Elkadi, M. Mento, K. Gavin
Due to the rapid expansion of the offshore wind industry, wind farms are being developed in areas where glauconite soils are encountered. Of particular interest for the development of windfarms in regions dominated by glauconite sand deposits is the risk associated with the presence of this geomaterial. It is acknowledged that glauconitic soils pose significant challenges during pile installation due to their high susceptibility to particle crushing at relatively low stress levels. This transforms the sand into a low-permeable fine-grained clay-like material, leading to a complex response upon shearing as a result of the change in soil behaviour. In this study, the geotechnical behaviour of a glauconite sand from the Antwerp region in Belgium is investigated by means of a laboratory testing program comprising of index classification tests, compression, direct shear and interface shear strength tests. The laboratory test data are interpreted to improve understanding of the geotechnical properties of this peculiar geomaterial and evaluate its potential implications during pile driving.
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Due to the rapid expansion of the offshore wind industry, wind farms are being developed in areas where glauconite soils are encountered. Of particular interest for the development of windfarms in regions dominated by glauconite sand deposits is the risk associated with the presence of this geomaterial. It is acknowledged that glauconitic soils pose significant challenges during pile installation due to their high susceptibility to particle crushing at relatively low stress levels. This transforms the sand into a low-permeable fine-grained clay-like material, leading to a complex response upon shearing as a result of the change in soil behaviour. In this study, the geotechnical behaviour of a glauconite sand from the Antwerp region in Belgium is investigated by means of a laboratory testing program comprising of index classification tests, compression, direct shear and interface shear strength tests. The laboratory test data are interpreted to improve understanding of the geotechnical properties of this peculiar geomaterial and evaluate its potential implications during pile driving.
Functional demands on quay walls are steadily rising with increases in both ship size and the frequency of port calls, requiring robust safety and performance assessment frameworks. Most existing studies on quay walls remain constrained by simplified analytical or numerical models, limited consideration of failure modes, insufficient model validation, and the absence of site-specific soil correlation, making it difficult to assess real structures under realistic loading conditions. This study presents a novel Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)-driven, performance-based reliability framework that samples directly from measured CPT distributions to preserve field consistent parameter relationships without requiring site-specific covariance matrices. The framework is demonstrated on a recently constructed, full-scale instrumented quay wall in the Port of Rotterdam. A two-dimensional finite element model with the Hardening Soil Small-strain (HSS) formulation is calibrated against
construction-stage monitoring (wall deformations and anchor forces) and coupled to a probabilistic engine to evaluate multiple ultimate and serviceability limit states through an explicit failure tree.
Results indicate that the structural failure of the wall governs the overall reliability of the quay wall, while wall deformation is the most variable response requiring close monitoring. Sensitivity analyses reveal that deeper dredging and higher surcharge loads markedly reduce reliability with wall structural failure governing and serviceability limit states showing the highest sensitivity to these hypothetical changes. The proposed approach provides a generalisable CPT-based methodology for reliability assessment of geotechnical structures based on site investigation data and monitoring data, supporting more informed, data-driven decision-making in design, and life-cycle management. ...
construction-stage monitoring (wall deformations and anchor forces) and coupled to a probabilistic engine to evaluate multiple ultimate and serviceability limit states through an explicit failure tree.
Results indicate that the structural failure of the wall governs the overall reliability of the quay wall, while wall deformation is the most variable response requiring close monitoring. Sensitivity analyses reveal that deeper dredging and higher surcharge loads markedly reduce reliability with wall structural failure governing and serviceability limit states showing the highest sensitivity to these hypothetical changes. The proposed approach provides a generalisable CPT-based methodology for reliability assessment of geotechnical structures based on site investigation data and monitoring data, supporting more informed, data-driven decision-making in design, and life-cycle management. ...
Functional demands on quay walls are steadily rising with increases in both ship size and the frequency of port calls, requiring robust safety and performance assessment frameworks. Most existing studies on quay walls remain constrained by simplified analytical or numerical models, limited consideration of failure modes, insufficient model validation, and the absence of site-specific soil correlation, making it difficult to assess real structures under realistic loading conditions. This study presents a novel Cone Penetration Tests (CPT)-driven, performance-based reliability framework that samples directly from measured CPT distributions to preserve field consistent parameter relationships without requiring site-specific covariance matrices. The framework is demonstrated on a recently constructed, full-scale instrumented quay wall in the Port of Rotterdam. A two-dimensional finite element model with the Hardening Soil Small-strain (HSS) formulation is calibrated against
construction-stage monitoring (wall deformations and anchor forces) and coupled to a probabilistic engine to evaluate multiple ultimate and serviceability limit states through an explicit failure tree.
Results indicate that the structural failure of the wall governs the overall reliability of the quay wall, while wall deformation is the most variable response requiring close monitoring. Sensitivity analyses reveal that deeper dredging and higher surcharge loads markedly reduce reliability with wall structural failure governing and serviceability limit states showing the highest sensitivity to these hypothetical changes. The proposed approach provides a generalisable CPT-based methodology for reliability assessment of geotechnical structures based on site investigation data and monitoring data, supporting more informed, data-driven decision-making in design, and life-cycle management.
construction-stage monitoring (wall deformations and anchor forces) and coupled to a probabilistic engine to evaluate multiple ultimate and serviceability limit states through an explicit failure tree.
Results indicate that the structural failure of the wall governs the overall reliability of the quay wall, while wall deformation is the most variable response requiring close monitoring. Sensitivity analyses reveal that deeper dredging and higher surcharge loads markedly reduce reliability with wall structural failure governing and serviceability limit states showing the highest sensitivity to these hypothetical changes. The proposed approach provides a generalisable CPT-based methodology for reliability assessment of geotechnical structures based on site investigation data and monitoring data, supporting more informed, data-driven decision-making in design, and life-cycle management.
SICMOG
Site Characterization and Monopile Installation in Glauconite Soils
Conference paper
(2025)
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Mario Martinelli, Maria Konstantinou, Claudio Tamagnini, Kenneth Gavin, Rene Thijssen, Ike van Giffen, Vladimir Thumann, Jort van Wijk
The rapid expansion of the offshore wind industry into regions with complex geomaterials, such as glauconite sands, presents significant geotechnical challenges. Glauconite sands, commonly found in shallow marine environments, are characterized by their susceptibility to particle crushing and complex shearing behavior, which can lead to high soil resistance and pile driving refusal during monopile (MP) installation. Current drivability prediction models often fail to account for these unique behaviors, leading to uncertainties and inefficiencies in offshore wind farm planning and construction. This research initiative, led by Deltares, seeks to address these challenges through a comprehensive 3-year program combining advanced experimental and numerical modeling. The project involves soil characterization via laboratory tests, calibration chamber testing, and Cone Penetration Test (CPT) simulations. The development of constitutive and drivability models tailored for glauconite sands aims to improve MP installation predictability and optimize offshore operations. The research will also establish soil classification guidelines for glauconite deposits, addressing gaps in current practices. The project’s findings are expected to provide actionable insights for both the scientific and industrial communities, enhancing the design and installation of offshore monopiles (MPs) in glauconite-bearing soils.
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The rapid expansion of the offshore wind industry into regions with complex geomaterials, such as glauconite sands, presents significant geotechnical challenges. Glauconite sands, commonly found in shallow marine environments, are characterized by their susceptibility to particle crushing and complex shearing behavior, which can lead to high soil resistance and pile driving refusal during monopile (MP) installation. Current drivability prediction models often fail to account for these unique behaviors, leading to uncertainties and inefficiencies in offshore wind farm planning and construction. This research initiative, led by Deltares, seeks to address these challenges through a comprehensive 3-year program combining advanced experimental and numerical modeling. The project involves soil characterization via laboratory tests, calibration chamber testing, and Cone Penetration Test (CPT) simulations. The development of constitutive and drivability models tailored for glauconite sands aims to improve MP installation predictability and optimize offshore operations. The research will also establish soil classification guidelines for glauconite deposits, addressing gaps in current practices. The project’s findings are expected to provide actionable insights for both the scientific and industrial communities, enhancing the design and installation of offshore monopiles (MPs) in glauconite-bearing soils.
The goal of this study is to investigate the effect of model parameters on the behaviour of offshore wind turbines in liquefiable soils under earthquake loading. Numerical analyses were conducted using an advanced soil constitutive model for liquefaction behaviour, the P2PSand model, available in FLAC3D. A previous study was chosen from the literature to verify the created numerical model, comparing pore water pressure in the soil and horizontal displacement of the monopile. The results indicate that the model can accurately predict both soil and pile behaviour. After validation, a new model was created to assess the effect of liquefiable soil parameters. Three soils were selected for comparison: Ottawa sand, Karlsruhe fine sand, and standard cyclic resistance field (SCRF) sand. Calibration of the model parameters for these soils is well-documented in the literature. A single earthquake record was applied to the model base, and the responses of free-field ground acceleration at the surface, superstructure (tower) acceleration, and pile head rotation were compared. Results showed that offshore wind turbine response in liquefiable soils is strongly influenced by soil parameters. Particularly, the parameters of SCRF sand led to higher ground and tower accelerations, resulting in greater monopile head rotations.
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The goal of this study is to investigate the effect of model parameters on the behaviour of offshore wind turbines in liquefiable soils under earthquake loading. Numerical analyses were conducted using an advanced soil constitutive model for liquefaction behaviour, the P2PSand model, available in FLAC3D. A previous study was chosen from the literature to verify the created numerical model, comparing pore water pressure in the soil and horizontal displacement of the monopile. The results indicate that the model can accurately predict both soil and pile behaviour. After validation, a new model was created to assess the effect of liquefiable soil parameters. Three soils were selected for comparison: Ottawa sand, Karlsruhe fine sand, and standard cyclic resistance field (SCRF) sand. Calibration of the model parameters for these soils is well-documented in the literature. A single earthquake record was applied to the model base, and the responses of free-field ground acceleration at the surface, superstructure (tower) acceleration, and pile head rotation were compared. Results showed that offshore wind turbine response in liquefiable soils is strongly influenced by soil parameters. Particularly, the parameters of SCRF sand led to higher ground and tower accelerations, resulting in greater monopile head rotations.
At the previous symposium, a new ‘unified’ CPT-based design method for estimating the axial capacity of driven piles in sand was introduced. This method has replaced all its predecessors in the design standard ISO/DIS 19901- 4:2022. The method estimates both the shaft resistance and the base resistance at a displacement of 10% of the pile diameter. However, when assessing the performance of a foundation, estimating the pile settlement as a function of the applied load is just as important as determining the ultimate bearing capacity. In addition to considering the compressibility of the pile, load-transfer curves for the pile shaft and base are required to estimate this settlement. As general load-transfer curves for the pile base of open-ended pipe piles are lacking, this paper focuses on these. A general load-transfer formulation is presented, adhering to the new ‘unified’ CPT-based design method. The formulation is also evaluated against test data, showing good agreement. Based on this, it is concluded that the base response of large-diameter open-ended pipe piles significantly differs from that of closed-ended piles and require its own formulation.
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At the previous symposium, a new ‘unified’ CPT-based design method for estimating the axial capacity of driven piles in sand was introduced. This method has replaced all its predecessors in the design standard ISO/DIS 19901- 4:2022. The method estimates both the shaft resistance and the base resistance at a displacement of 10% of the pile diameter. However, when assessing the performance of a foundation, estimating the pile settlement as a function of the applied load is just as important as determining the ultimate bearing capacity. In addition to considering the compressibility of the pile, load-transfer curves for the pile shaft and base are required to estimate this settlement. As general load-transfer curves for the pile base of open-ended pipe piles are lacking, this paper focuses on these. A general load-transfer formulation is presented, adhering to the new ‘unified’ CPT-based design method. The formulation is also evaluated against test data, showing good agreement. Based on this, it is concluded that the base response of large-diameter open-ended pipe piles significantly differs from that of closed-ended piles and require its own formulation.
This study reviews existing cone penetration test (CPT) correlations for the prediction of the small strain shear modulus (Gmax). Its performance is investigated through application to an open-source offshore ground investigation dataset from the Netherlands. The research evaluates correlations involving various parameters such as cone tip and corrected cone tip resistance, net corrected cone resistance, sleeve friction, pore water pressure, and vertical effective stress. Results indicate that correlations are highly site-specific, often requiring recalibration to account for local conditions. Existing sand correlations provide more accurate predictions but tend to underpredict Gmax, while clay-specific correlations tend to overpredict Gmax, particularly in stiffer offshore clays. The study also highlights the need for further exploration of parameter normalisation to refine these correlations. This work represents an additional step in the understanding of CPT-based Gmax predictions and their associated uncertainties, emphasizing the importance of developing robust, site-specific correlations for optimal offshore wind foundation design.
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This study reviews existing cone penetration test (CPT) correlations for the prediction of the small strain shear modulus (Gmax). Its performance is investigated through application to an open-source offshore ground investigation dataset from the Netherlands. The research evaluates correlations involving various parameters such as cone tip and corrected cone tip resistance, net corrected cone resistance, sleeve friction, pore water pressure, and vertical effective stress. Results indicate that correlations are highly site-specific, often requiring recalibration to account for local conditions. Existing sand correlations provide more accurate predictions but tend to underpredict Gmax, while clay-specific correlations tend to overpredict Gmax, particularly in stiffer offshore clays. The study also highlights the need for further exploration of parameter normalisation to refine these correlations. This work represents an additional step in the understanding of CPT-based Gmax predictions and their associated uncertainties, emphasizing the importance of developing robust, site-specific correlations for optimal offshore wind foundation design.