This article presents results of an experimental campaign on a scaled vibro-driver in sand conducted in TU Delft’s geo-centrifuge as part of the GEOLAB funded project FoundEx. The aim of this experimental campaign is to explore the different parameters governing the vibro-driveability of a monopile within sand to improve the understanding of the phenomena at play, quantify the influence of driving parameters, and refine their selection to open new perspectives for the industry. After explaining the governing principles of vibro-drivers and the design of the miniature vibro-driver, the results of vibro-driving in dry dense sand under 50g for different vibrating frequencies are presented. These results are then analysed to quantify the relation between the vibratory frequency and the pile penetration, as well as its penetration rate.

Micro-scale mechanisms, such as inter-particle and particle-fluid interactions, govern the behaviour of granular systems. While particle-scale simulations provide detailed insights into these interactions, their computational cost is often prohibitive. At a recent Lorentz Center Workshop on “Machine Learning for Discrete Granular Media”, researchers explored how machine learning approaches can aid the development of constitutive laws and efficient data-driven surrogates for granular materials while also addressing uncertainty quantification. Attended by researchers from both the granular materials (GM) and machine learning (ML) communities, the workshop brought the ML community up to date with GM challenges. This position paper emerged from the workshop discussions. In this position paper, we define granular materials and identify seven key challenges that characterise their distinctive behaviour across various scales and regimes–ranging from gas-like to fluid-like and solid-like. Addressing these challenges is essential for developing robust and efficient models for the digital twinning of granular systems in various industrial applications. To showcase the potential of ML to the GM community, we present classical and emerging machine/deep learning techniques that have been, or could be, applied to granular materials. We reviewed sequence-based learning models for path-dependent constitutive behaviour, followed by encoder-decoder type models for representing high-dimensional data in reduced spaces. We then explore graph neural networks and recent advances in neural operator learning. The latter captures the emerging field evolution of interacting particles via efficient latent space representation. Lastly, we discuss model-order reduction and probabilistic learning techniques for high-dimensional parameterised systems, both of which are crucial for quantifying and incorporating uncertainties arising from physics-based and data-driven models. We present a typical workflow aimed at unifying data structures and modelling pipelines and guiding readers through the selection, training, and deployment of ML surrogates for granular material simulations. Finally, we illustrate the workflow’s practical use with two representative examples, focusing on granular materials in solid-like and fluid-like regimes.

Monopiles, commonly adopted as substructures in wind farms, are typically installed via impact driving. The heavy selfweight of the monopile and the impact hammer required for installation increase the risk of pile runs. Pile runs have been reported in cases of stronger soils overlying weaker layers, as well as in heterogeneous soil deposits (e.g., chalk). However, recent experience from the field showed that none of the reasons above could satisfactorily explain the observed pile run in the presence of silty or fine sandy soils, typically referred to as transitional soils. Conversely, back analysis of the driving data revealed a high dependency of the Soil Resistance to Driving (SRD) on the pile penetration rate. This behaviour is believed to be linked to the drainage response of the transitional soils and pile driving parameters, including impact energy and blow rate. The latter may combine so that Excess Pore Water Pressures (EPWP), without dissipating sufficiently, accumulate to the extent a pile run can be triggered, due to the reduction of the available shear strength of the soil. To investigate this hypothesis, an experimental testing program was conducted using the geotechnical centrifuge. The tests, involving a model monopile driven in a natural silt sample, aimed at demonstrating that the soil conditions believed to contribute to a pile run can be replicated in the centrifuge. Preliminary results of a testing sequence of single blows suggest that the EPWP accumulated around the pile between consecutive blows is responsible for a reduction of the unit shaft resistance.

This study presents a numerical model that couples the Discrete Element Method (DEM) with the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) to investigate the influence of pore pressure on submarine landslides impinging against cables. DEM is employed to simulate the mechanical behaviour of granular materials, while LBM models the fluid dynamics of pore water. This coupled approach enables a detailed analysis of the interactions between submarine landslides and submarine cables, capturing the dynamics of pore pressure and its effect on the velocity field of both grains and fluid. The model has been benchmarked against values from the literature, demonstrating its reliability and accuracy in reproducing observed phenomena. Results highlight the critical role of pore pressure on the velocity field and forces acting on intruders.

Granular flows can occur under low inertia conditions, called the quasi-static regime, and extend to highly inertial systems, called the inertial regime. In the latter, granular flows, particularly those having a variety of grain sizes—property known as polydispersity—have not been extensively studied. Existing rheological laws for monodisperse flows effectively capture volume and friction variations across inertial ranges, assuming the grains diameter as the flow characteristic length. For polydisperse materials, this assumption is less intuitive, and rheological laws cannot be extended straightforwardly. In this work, we employed the Discrete Element Method to study granular flows across varying inertial levels, aiming to identify a physically based length scale that represents the grain scale for polydisperse flows. We show that the average branch length (i.e., distance between the centers of contacting grains) is a representative value of the material's grain size distribution, remaining nearly constant across the explored range of inertia. Moreover, we show that monodisperse and polydisperse flows follow common inertial volume and friction laws when the average branch length is considered as the characteristic length. The findings of this work propose a new perspective for understanding the characteristic length of granular flows, providing a comprehensive interpretation based on the grains contacts. They also permit to extend rheological laws, initially proposed for monodisperse flows, to polydisperse flows by considering the characteristic length scale as the average branch length. Finally, Our results are useful for choosing the characteristic length that controls large-scale flows where polydispersity plays an important role.

The Horizon Europe research project TAILWIND aims to advance station-keeping system technologies for floating offshore wind farms. This paper marks the first steps in the project putting forward economic, environmental, and technological key performance indicators to assist the selection and development of anchors. Scenarios in terms of location, soil profile, and floater are defined. Anchor loading histories are obtained through coupled load simulations and used to design typical anchors. Key performance indicators describing three sustainability aspects – economic, environmental, and technological – are proposed to assess the industrial feasibility of each anchor type. The study has two outcomes. Firstly, sustainability key performance indicators that can guide the selection of anchor technologies for future floating offshore wind development are proposed. Secondly, guidance on the most promising anchor for further development via experimental testing and numerical modelling within the TAILWIND project is provided.

The dynamic properties of loose sands under low stresses have been poorly investigated because of the higher order of magnitude of stress levels in terrestrial geotechnical structures. However, low densities and low stresses prevail in the sandy surface deposits of some other rocky planets, making low stress conditions relevant for extra-terrestrial soil mechanics. This is the case of Mars, on the surface of which a seismometer has been placed during the InSight mission. In this context, a dynamic shear rheometer was used to measure the shear modulus and damping ratio of a Martian regolith simulant under very low stresses to improve the interpretation of the InSight dataset on surface materials. This paper also revisits the grain contact stiffness and the overall modulus of a random packing of identical spheres, based on the Hertz-Mindlin contact theory. A micromechanical model accounting for the effects of both grain roughness and slipping in the soil degradation curve is proposed. The results of the model show a good agreement with experimental data, capturing the non-linear transition from low to high-shear strains. The model hence provides a new framework for a better understanding of the behaviour of granular materials in low gravity (extra-terrestrial) conditions.

As the population in cities all over the world is increasing, the effects of climatic action on the resilience of communities is becoming more and more important. Cities situated in deltas are also under strong urbanization demands and these demands have to be met with due consideration of the challenges presented by climate change, land subsidence and sea-level rise. Within this context, the local geological conditions in the Netherlands present a particularly pressing challenge where water pressure under a clay cover may increase. The static equilibrium of the cover layer might be adversely affected, and uplift failure can be imminent. A recent research program into this failure path has been initiated. Besides the field tests and advanced numerical modelling approaches, the research program also made use of centrifuge tests to quantify the extent of uplift, cracking, and deformation phenomena. This contribution intends to exhibit the aspects of the centrifuge tests conducted as part of this study. The experimental setup design and design considerations will be explained as well as the instrumentation methodology and the reasoning behind the instrumentation choices. This contribution aims to improve the stability assessment of dikes under uplift conditions.

The column collapse experiment is a simplified version of natural and industrial granular flows. In this set-up, a column built with grains collapses and spreads over a horizontal plane. Granular flows are often studied with a monodisperse distribution; however, this is not the case in natural granular flows where a variety of grain sizes, known as polydispersity, is a common feature. In this work, we study the effect of polydispersity, and of the inherent changes that polydispersity causes in the initial packing fraction, in dry and immersed columns. We show that dry columns are not significantly affected by polydispersity, reaching similar distances at similar times. In contrast, immersed columns are strongly affected by the polydispersity and packing fraction, and the collapse sequence is linked to changes of the basal pore fluid pressure P. At the collapse initiation, negative changes of P beneath the column produce a temporary increase of the column strength. The negative change of P lasts longer in polydisperse columns than in monodisperse columns, delaying the collapse sequence. Conversely, during the column spreading, positive changes of P lead to a decrease of the shear strength. For polydisperse collapses, the excess of P lasts longer, allowing the material to reach farther distances, compared with the collapses of monodisperse materials. Finally, we show that a mobility model that scales the final runout with the collapse kinetic energy remains true for different polydispersity levels in a three-dimensional configuration, capturing the scaling between the micro to macro controlling features.

Granular materials are used in several fields and in a wide variety of processes. An important feature of these materials is the diversity of grain sizes, commonly referred to as polydispersity. When granular materials are sheared, they exhibit a predominant small elastic range. Then, the material yields, with or without a peak shear strength depending on the initial density. Finally, the material reaches a stationary state, in which it deforms at a constant shear stress, which can be linked to the residual friction angle φr. However, the role of polydispersity on the shear strength of granular materials is still a matter of debate. In particular, a series of investigations have proved, using numerical simulations, that φr is independent of polydispersity. This counterintuitive observation remains elusive to experimentalists, and especially for some technical communities that use φr as a design parameter (e.g., the soil mechanics community). In this Letter, we studied experimentally the effects of polydispersity on φr. In order to do so, we built samples of ceramic beads and then sheared these samples in a triaxial apparatus. We varied polydispersity, building monodisperse, bidisperse, and polydisperse granular samples; this allowed us to study the effects of grain size, size span, and grain size distribution on φr. We find that φr is indeed independent of polydispersity, confirming the previous findings achieved through numerical simulations. Our work fairly closes the gap of knowledge between experiments and simulations.

We present the late Holocene eruption history of the poorly known Doña Juana volcanic complex, in SW Colombia, which last erupted in the twentieth century. This represents a case study for potentially active volcanism in the rural Northern Andes, where tropical climate conditions and a fragmented social memory blur the record of dormant volcanoes. We reconstructed the volcanic stratigraphy of the central-summit vent area by integrating new mapping at 1:5000 scale with radiocarbon ages, sedimentology analysis, and historical chronicles. Our results revealed cyclic transitions from lava-dome growth phases and collapse to explosive Vulcanian and possibly subplinian phases. Pyroclastic density currents were generated by dome collapse producing block-and-ash flows or by pyroclastic fountain/ column collapse and were rapidly channelized into the deeply incised fluvial valleys around the volcano summit. The pyroclastic density currents were ~4–10 × 10⁶ m³ in volume and deposited under granular flow– or fluid escape–dominated depositional regimes at high clast concentrations. In places, more dilute upper portions reached a wider areal distribution that affected the inhabited areas on high depositional terraces. The coefficient of friction (ΔH/L) is higher for block-and-ash flows and dense lava–bearing fountain/low-column-collapse pyroclastic density currents compared to pumice-bearing, column-collapse pyroclastic density currents. Associated mass-wasting processes included syneruptive and intereruptive debris flows, with the last one documented in 1936 CE.

Geophysical mass flows involve particles of different sizes, a property termed polydispersity. The granular column collapse is a simplified experiment for studying transitional granular flows. Our research focuses on the role that polydispersity has on the velocity and runout distance of dry and immersed granular columns, undergoing a numerical and experimental study. Our results highlight that polydispersity does not have a strong effect on the collapse of dry columns. On the contrary, the collapse sequence of immerse granular columns strongly depend on the polydispersity level.

Fuelled by technological innovations and the growing commitment of countries to reduce their carbon footprint, offshore wind has steadily been gaining ground on non-sustainable sources of energy. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) [2], it is foreseen that wind will be the principal source of energy in Europe by 2027. However, in an effort to protect the marine environment from sound pollution [1], regulations applicable to offshore wind endeavors have become more stringent. To sustain the growth of the offshore wind sector, more durable installation methods are required. Prolongation of the impact duration has been identified as a suitable method to protect the marine environment from sound pollution [7]. However, the market introduction of this technology is hampered by a lack of understanding of its effects on soil-structure interaction. Therefore, concerns exist on (mono)pile drivability, as well as the performance of the foundation under axial and lateral loads. To address this issue, a series of centrifuge experiments is performed in the centrifuge facility of Delft University of Technology (DUT). The experiments are conducted at 50g acceleration and show the effect of blow prolongation on the drivability of miniature steel, tubular pile (outer diameter, D = 42 mm; wall thickness, t = 2 mm) in dry GEBA sand at 80% relative density. The blow-prolongation technology that is assessed is IQIP’s BLUE Piling (BP) Technology [4]. Details on the actuator used to simulate BP technology in the centrifuge are provided by the work of Quinten et al. (2022) [6]. Prior to dynamic installation, the pile was allowed to settle in into the sample under 1g conditions. Subsequently, an second self-weight penetration phase is initiated by increasing the centrifuge acceleration to 50g, while the ram acts as dead-weight on top of the pile. Following the self-weight penetration phase, the centrifuge is intermittently stopped and reinitiated to (re)set the actuator. The BP ram has a mass of 1.889 kg ram and stroke of 40 mm. The results of the BP experiment are compared against those from centrifuge experiments involving impact hammering (IH), the most widespread method of installation for monopiles in the offshore sector. A detailed description of the actuator, the miniature impact hammer of DUT, is provided by Quinten et al. (2022) [5]. The model pile was pre-embedded at a depth of 50 mm under 1g conditions prior to the dynamic installation phase. The hammer operates at a driving frequency of 10 Hz and is equipped with a ram of 0.140 kg, which is released from a height of 40 mm. Comparison of the results of both experiments, reveals striking differences in the cumulative settlement behavior of the pile as well as the pile stresses. The cumulative pile displacement charts, as shown in Figure 1, show significant differences between the two installation methods. For BP (Figure 1a), a series of 3 single blow experiments was conducted. For IH (Figure 1b), the experiment lasted for a total of 37 consecutive blows. The realized pile set during the experiment is comparable between the two tests. The average normalized displacement equates to 0.5D and 0.03D per blow for BP and IH respectively. The soil level inside the pile cavity was measured following the execution of both experiments. The associated measurements indicated that both piles were driven in a fully coring mode. When considering the prototype pile dimensions and soil conditions, this finding corresponds well with the work of Jardine et al. (2005) [3]. Further differences between IH and BP were observed in terms of (peak) pile stress. The driving forces are reduced from 25 kN for IH to 6 kN for BP, respectively. The driving factor behind this reduction is the decrease in interface stiffness between the ram and the anvil. The latter completely offsets the effects associated with the use of a significantly heavier ram mass in the case of BLUE Piling. When the driving forces are expressed as a percentage of the pile yield limit, aforementioned figures respectively equate to 42% and 10%. Extrapolated over the full installation sequence, the latter would contribute to a reduction in the fatigue accumulated during installation.

The results presented here form the first step towards understanding the effect of blow duration soil-structure interaction for blow prolongation technology. For the set of installation parameters and boundary conditions considered in this study, it is shown that the differences in pile installation behavior can be captured using centrifuge modeling. The prolongation of blow duration results in a significantly different overall installation behavior. When looking at the driving forces, the decrease of the interface stiffness between the ram and anvil produces the anticipated decrease in peak driving force. A sustained physical modeling effort is required to ultimately lay the basis for a predictive installation framework for blow-prolonging technology, which would arguably accelerate its adoption by the industry. The latter should help the reek the associated benefits, particularly in terms of fatigue reduction and sound remediation in the near future.

The collapse dynamics and runout of columns of elongated grains in two dimensions are numerically investigated in dry and immersed conditions, by means of an unresolved finite elements/discrete elements model. The elongated grains are modeled as rigid aggregates of disks. The column aspect ratio is systematically varied from 0.125 to 16 in order to span short and tall columns. To analyze the effect of the initial grain orientation, columns with an initial grain orientation that is either random or aligned with a given direction are both considered. Collapse dynamics, both in dry and immersed cases, are found analogous to that previously observed for circular grain columns, particularly with respect to the power law dependency for the runout as a function of the column aspect ratio. The effect of the fluid mainly results in a decrease of the runout distance. Interestingly, the collapse dynamics and runout are not significantly affected by the initial orientation of the grains, except maybe in the extreme case where the grains are all horizontally oriented, which geometrically prevents the collapse. Finally, a scaling based on the front propagation energy is proposed allowing one to unify the runout of short to tall and dry to immersed columns in a single description, regardless of the initial grain orientation.

Granular flows are a complex process, involving a wide range of grain sizes, materials, varied viscous fluids, among others. For this reason, the simulation of granular flows requires a certain level of simplification, allowing the isolated study of its governing variables and extending the global observations to field events. Here, we present the planar setup as an alternative for studying simplified processes associated to granular flows. The planar setup consists of two windows separated by a thin gap and enclosing a granular assembly. We present two examples where the planar setup is adapted for the study of the competing action of segregation and disaggregation in a fractured grain under shear flow, and for the study of the stability scenarios of a flow impacting a permeable obstacle. The close visualization of the kinematics at the particle scale provides an ideal opportunity for describing the mechanisms behind the grain disaggregation or controlling the obstacle stability. Both examples highlight the advantages of the planar setup for the study of granular flows.

The dynamic properties of loose sands under low stresses are an unexplored topic in soil dynamics because these soil conditions are uncommon in most geotechnical structures on Earth. However, low densities and low-stress conditions prevail on other planets, like, for instance, the surface of Mars, for which particular attention is presently given through the InSight NASA mission. This work presents a new procedure for measuring the dynamic properties of loose sand under low stress by using the dynamical mechanical analysis (DMA) tester, a technique commonly used in asphalt engineering but not in geotechnical engineering. Compared to traditional geotechnical methods (resonant column and cyclic triaxial tests), DMA investigates a broader range of strains using a single apparatus. In this work, we assess the dynamical properties of loose fine sand Dr ∼ 0.2, considered a possible Mars regolith analog, by varying the input strain from γ = 10-6 to γ = 10-2 while applying confining pressures from ρ3 =3 kPa to ρ3 = 30 kPa. The results validate the proposed procedure, showing an increment of the shear modulus as the confining pressure increases. Furthermore, they highlight DMA's advantages for studying the dynamic properties of granular soils under low stress and strain.

The granular column collapse is a simplified version of granular flows such as landslides, avalanches, and other industrial processes mobilized in air or within a fluid. In this configuration, the particles collapse in an accelerating phase, reaching a state of constant spreading velocity until they decelerate and stop. Granular flows commonly involve particles of different sizes, a property termed polydispersity. Understanding the role of polydispersity remains a challenging task that is often analyzed with nearly monodisperse systems and demanding a series of simplifications when coupled with a fluid in a numerical model. Here, we study the effect of particle-size polydispersity in dry and immersed granular columns, using a finite element method-discrete element method model for fluid-particle interactions. We show that the velocity of the column collapse and runout distance decrease with an increase in the level of polydispersity in immersed conditions, and remain nearly independent of the level of polydispersity in dry conditions. Moreover, we find that the runout scales with the spreading front kinetic energy, weighted by the ratio between the particles' density and the density difference between particles and fluid. This scaling helps in identifying the governing processes in polydisperse granular columns, unifying the runout description of both dry and immersed collapses, and indicating that the column initial packing fraction is the governing parameter.

The pile response is of great importance to the effectiveness of a row of piles used as a landslide mitigation method. However, the current classifications of the pile responses and failure modes do not consider the effects of soil displacement and the relative pile rigidity. An attempt is made in this paper to improve this using a non-dimensional model based on simplified ground consisted of two layers of cohesive soils. A hyperbolic p–y model is adopted to consider non-linear soil reactions. The calculations of three case histories show that the proposed model predicts the pile responses well. The dependencies for obtaining a pile response with maximum pile resistance have been identified and the influencing factors have been examined. The efficacy of the proposed approach has been demonstrated by the satisfactory result that it achieves in reproducing the more complex three-dimensional finite-element analyses. The application of the non-dimensional solutions indicates that it can increase the efficiency of the preliminary pile design.

In the SW flank of the Doña Juana Volcanic Complex, Colombia, the dynamic geomorphic system responds to the complex interaction between volcanic, climatic, and tectonic driving forces, where the recent landscape (last ~20 years) is being shaped as a function of denudational processes. Despite the rapid rates of landforms development, the geomorphology of this area is poorly documented. To overcome the lack of information we mapped the area using a GeoSAR DEM and an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle based DEM. This paper presents two maps, a 1:25,000 scale map and a 1:5,000 detailed map of landforms along the Humadal Creek. Detailed categorization of landforms (at 1:5,000) allowed us to identify geomorphic processes in the village of Las Mesas and rural areas that triggered hazards for the communities. The morphologic evolution interpretation of this volcanic tropical area serves as a tool for future geohazard assessment in inhabited areas with important information gaps.

Compaction is probably the industrial process more intensively used in road construction. The current compaction practice is based on the useful methodology proposed by Proctor (1933). This methodology intends to reproduce field compaction in the laboratory by applying a controlled mechanical energy to the soil and relating the dry density with the water content. However, recent developments in soil compaction analysis in the laboratory and field seek a better understanding of the link between the mechanical stresses applied to the soil and the strains it undergoes. This requirement needs analyzing the stresses applied to the soil by the compaction machine, the distribution of stresses within the soil layer undergoing compaction, and the behavior of the partially saturated soil. This article explores the feasibility of using a series of simplified analytical equations to model compaction within a mechanical framework. The proposed model focuses on the compaction produced by a cylinder applying a static load. The methodology combines the Hertz contact stress theory with the Fröhlich stress distribution and the Barcelona Basic Model for partially saturated soils. The results of the proposed analytical model successfully agree with the experimental observations obtained using a geotechnical centrifuge model and confirming its potential use for compaction control and monitoring.