Low-strength sediment layers within continental slope strata precondition submarine sediment for failure, potentially leading to destructive tsunamis. Using geophysical and Ocean Drilling Program well data, here we show that the glide planes of widespread submarine failures in the northern South China Sea, dated to the glacial stages following the Mid-Pleistocene Transition, have higher opal content, particle size, and porosity, which reduce the undrained shear strength. Cyclic weak-layer deposition, modulated at Milankovitch time scale, was controlled by increased ocean primary productivity and sedimentation rates linked to high-amplitude sea-level fluctuations and intensified winter monsoons. This study represents an important step forward for understanding how climate influences the formation of weak layers and the stability of continental slope globally.

Piled embankments are traditionally designed by using either guidelines based on simplified limit-equilibrium theories or advanced finite-element (FE) numerical analyses. Both methods have limitations: the former do not allow the assessment of settlements at the top of the embankment, whereas the latter easily become overly complex, hence limiting practical applications. This paper introduces a new mathematical model capable of reproducing, with minimal computational effort, the mechanical response of piled embankments modelled by means of FEs. The model is based on a set of fundamental principles, assumptions and phenomenological equations obtained from a deep understanding of the mechanics behind the FE problem. The model, evaluating average and differential settlements at the top of the embankment during the consolidation of the soft soil, is validated against full-scale test data and benchmarked against independent numerical results. The results are compared with existing formulas to evaluate the critical height of the embankment, demonstrating the great potential of the new model for engineering practice (giving nearly instantaneous displacement-based solutions for the design of piled embankments in a preliminary stage).

To reduce noise and minimize fatigue damage during pile driving, a new installation method has been developed that differs from conventional pile driving with high-frequency impact blows. This method prolongs the hammer blow, causing a slower pressing force. As a result, it reduces stress waves and imposes a quasi-static loading process on the pile. Consequently, this approach may induce different soil response phenomena compared to conventional pile driving. For instance, friction fatigue is a well-known phenomenon whereby the shaft resistance during installation is affected by cyclic loading and geometrical effects. With this in mind, this paper presents field tests on a pile installed with this new piling method in the port of Rotterdam. Using this field test data, this research will explore the differences in soil response between the prolonged-blow installation technique and conventional driving methods, focusing on friction fatigue.

Conventional piled foundation designs tend to be overly conservative since the beneficial role of the raft is often neglected by assuming the piles to be the only part of the structure interacting with the soil. The contribution of the raft to the global response of the foundation is particularly important in the case of "large"piled rafts, where the pile length is comparable to the raft width. This configuration, although not theoretically optimal, is common for existing foundations of bridges and high-rise buildings. Although the beneficial effect of raft-pile-soil interaction on both bearing capacity and stiffness is generally acknowledged, simple and reliable approaches recognized by design codes are not yet available. Aiming at providing simple tools for designing large piled rafts under static and dynamic/cyclic loads, in this paper a numerical study is presented, with preliminary finite element analyses performed to examine the mechanical behaviour of a "large"piled raft under vertical centred loads and positioned on a dry sand layer. This paper presents the findings of this study, comparing the performance of the piled raft to the corresponding pile group and unpiled raft, and highlights the importance of considering the presence of rafts in the design of piled foundations.

Accurate evaluation of undrained shear strength of soils is crucial in geotechnical design and assessment. In the practice, undrained shear strength is obtained most frequently from CPT data, dividing the net cone tip resistance by a cone factor, 𝑁𝑁!". For organic soils, values between 8.6 and 15.3 are reported, depending on the stress history. The cone factor can be conditioned to the results of laboratory tests, although uncertainties remain on the variety of stress paths followed by the soil elements around the tip of the cone, compared to the ones tested in the laboratory. Non-uniqueness in the definition of the cone factor may lead to either unsafe or over-conservative choices, partly undermining both the reliability and the sustainability of the design. This contribution analyses numerically the inversion technique used to determine the undrained shear strength of organic clays, exploiting data from an extensive in situ and laboratory investigation. The adopted constitutive model was calibrated on the results of laboratory tests. Cone penetration tests were simulated performing coupled hydro-mechanical numerical analyses via G-PFEM, developed in the last decade at CIMNE-UPC. The role played by initial stress state and previous stress history upon stress distribution at failure, cone factor and sleeve friction is discussed. The numerical results suggest how the sleeve friction could be used to condition the cone factor depending on the over-consolidation ratio and demonstrate how combining the different available CPT readings with the aid of numerical results may reduce the uncertainty in the estimation of undrained shear strength.

Ground anchors are crucial components in various construction and engineering applications. They play a critical role in retaining structures and, therefore, design guidelines have established the necessity of comprehensive testing campaigns to derive the anchors characteristic resistance. The latter is a specified percentile within a presumed statistical distribution. In principle, a limited number of investigation tests cannot be used to estimate the characteristic values. To overcome this limitation, in a simplified way, the design codes suggest reducing the resistance found in experimental results by a factor to estimate the anchor characteristic resistance to be used in the design. In this paper, the authors propose a new approach for interpreting ground anchor test results and determining the statistical distribution of ground anchor resistance. The approach is based on the use of Bayesian updating, formulated as a structural reliability problem, and on the definition of a simplified phenomenological model relating the imposed load and the measured anchor (creep) displacements. This distribution can be used to determine a “proven” anchor characteristic resistance, which can then be used to update the anchor design.

Mechanized tunnel excavation in soils causes over-excavations, potentially leading to large amounts of spoil and settlements at ground level. An accurate estimation of over-excavations is crucial in the pre-design phase for assessing costs, determining the appropriate excavation method and choosing the muck management strategy. Currently, the estimation is based on experience and data from similar projects, but it becomes difficult when project conditions are heterogeneous. Alternatively, finite element analyses are time-consuming and not suitable for early design stages and, therefore, simplified tools are needed. In this paper, the authors present a simplified approach putting in relation face extrusion with estimated spoil mass and face volume loss. This approach, conceived for deep tunnels, is the extension to the case of mechanized tunnelling of a hydro-mechanical coupled meta-model derived from finite element numerical analyses for tunnels in clayey soils excavated by using conventional techniques (i.e. without any use of tunnel boring machines). The model has been validated against field data relative to a case study. The approach can be used in the early design process to identify tunnel boring machine characteristics and provide preliminary cost estimates. Additionally, during the construction phase, the method can be employed to interpret monitoring data and pre-design mitigation measures for unforeseen soil profile variations.

Cement-bentonite cut-off walls are commonly employed in geoenvironmental applications to limit ground water flow and pollutant transport. The wide diffusion of this artificial material in the current practice is not only due to its low permeability, but also to its simplicity of use. In this paper, experimental evidences about the role of curing on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of cement-bentonite mixtures are presented. Different curing times and curing conditions (representative for either water saturated or hydrocarbon polluted soils) have been considered, and their effects on both hydraulic conductivity and mechanical response in oedometer and triaxial conditions have been assessed. A unified hydro-mechanical framework, accounting for the changes of material fabric occurring with curing time and environment, is formulated. The hydraulic conductivity is very well predicted by a Kozeny-Carman like equation, whereas the mechanical behaviour is finely reproduced via an enhanced elastic–plastic constitutive model.

The use of piles as settlement reducers in the design of artificial embankments on soft soil strata is nowadays very common. The design methods employed in the current engineering practice are based on simplified approaches not allowing the assessment of average and differential settlements at the top of the embankment. In this paper, a model to estimate both differential and average displacements at the top of the embankment is introduced. This, based on the choice of substructuring the spatial domain and employing a suitably conceived upscaling procedure, is an extension to the case of rough pile shafts of a model originally conceived by the authors for smooth piles. To conceive and calibrate the model, the authors performed a series of numerical simulations mainly aimed at highlighting the mechanical processes taking place at the pile shaft. From a practical point of view, this model can fruitfully be employed in displacement based design approaches and to optimize pile diameter and spacing.

Tunnel faces excavated under particularly difficult ground conditions are commonly supported. In case of conventional tunnelling, this support is provided by either improving the mechanical properties of the soil or introducing linear inclusions. This latter technique, consisting in the introduction of fibreglass pipes in the face, is particularly popular since it is very simple to tailor to the different conditions encountered during the excavation the reinforcement spatial distribution. In the current engineering practice, this stabilisation technique is designed by employing simplified approaches not allowing the face displacement estimation. For this reason, in case of deep tunnels in cohesive soils under either undrained or ‘partially drained’ conditions, these approaches cannot be employed. In this paper, the authors present the practical application of a new displacement based design approach, based on the definition of the face characteristic curve, putting in relation the face displacement to the stress applied on the face.

Piled foundations are commonly employed to reduce settlements of artificial earth embankments on soft soil strata and geosynthetic reinforcements are installed at the embankment base to increase pile spacing and reduce construction costs. Despite the well-documented effectiveness of this technique, the mechanical processes, developing during the construction in the different elements constituting the ‘geo-structure’, are not fully understood and the design approaches are based on very simplified assumptions. They disregard the deformability of the various elements constituting the system and cannot be employed to estimate settlements. With the aim of introducing a displacement-based design approach to optimise the use of reinforcements and piles, in this article, the mechanical response of the system during the embankment construction is studied by means of large displacement non-linear finite difference numerical analyses, in which the geosynthetic reinforcement is modelled as an elastic membrane. The arching effect developing within the embankment body is described and the evolution of the process zone, where shear strains localise, is discussed. The global system response is described in terms of (i) average, (ii) differential settlements at the top of the embankment and (iii) maximum tensile force within the geosynthetic reinforcement.

Seismic-induced liquefaction is one of the main hazards for pipelines buried in saturated granular materials. When soil is partially or completely fluidized, a lifeline, although installed in superficial trenches in which the coarse backfill soil usually is compacted, may experience a sudden uplift and damages. To reduce pipeline uplift and thus limit the associated risks, the authors propose a sustainable and original mitigation strategy, suitable for both existing and new lifelines, based on both the use of a geomembrane and the compaction of the soil surrounding the pipeline. According to the design method proposed, the intervention geometry is selected on the basis of the pipeline maximum admissible displacement, whereas the minimum required relative density can be designed, based on the site-specific seismic demand, to avoid cyclically induced local accumulation in excess pore-water pressure. To prove the effectiveness of this strategy, a series of 1-g small-scale laboratory tests was performed on a pipe buried in a fluidized sand layer. A simplified displacement-based design approach, which was validated against the experimental data, is proposed.

Anchored wire meshes are commonly adopted to stabilize potentially unstable soil slopes. This reinforcement technique, employed either as an active or a passive anchoring system, is commonly designed according to ultimate limit state approaches. In this paper, an interaction model, useful for the design of anchored wire meshes, is proposed. The model is based on the results of a series of 3D large displacement finite element numerical analyses, in which the wire mesh mechanical behaviour is modelled as either an elastic or an elastic–plastic membrane. The model is inspired to standard load–displacement curves for shallow foundations, and the wire mesh presence is taken into account by suitably modifying the bearing capacity formula. The proposed model predictions are compared with experimental punching test results. The use of the model, only requiring the definition of geometry and soil–wire mesh mechanical properties, allows the pre-design of the reinforcement system without performing ad hoc finite element numerical analyses.

The increasing demand of sustainability of the construction of new structures and the necessity of verifying/retrofitting the existing ones require reliable design tools. To this aim, fundamental is gathering new insights in the mechanical response of foundations. As far as shallow foundations are concerned, one aspect commonly disregarded in the current engineering practice is the influence of the mechanical interaction among adjacent foundations. The authors approach this problem by performing a parametric finite element non-linear numerical study on a squared shallow foundation, loaded by a vertical centred load under fully drained conditions. The numerical results put in evidence that the interaction, for any spacing value, causes an initial increase in settlements, whereas the dependence of bearing capacity on spacing seems to be, according to the case, either beneficial or detrimental. For particular geometries and mechanical properties, the reduction in bearing capacity may reach about the 30%. These dependences are justified in the light of the findings at the local scale, i.e. discussing the spatial distributions of irreversible strain, displacement and stress fields as the applied load increases. Finally, the authors have proposed a simplified design approach to derive not only the bearing capacity, but also a preliminary prediction in terms of displacements accounting for the reciprocal foundation interaction.

Most of the infrastructures in Europe are approaching their design life and, therefore, their safety under present conditions has to be reassessed. This is particularly crucial in the Italian context, since the current seismic design standards have significantly changed, being more severe than the previous ones. The goal of this paper is the critical evaluation of three different pseudo-static approaches for verifying at Ultimate Limit State a piled foundation of an existing bridge: (i) the standard one, neglecting the raft contribution and assuming foundation failure to be coincident with the failure of the most loaded pile, (ii) an analytical method, neglecting the raft contribution, but considering the ductile redistribution of forces on piles, (iii) a Finite Element numerical analysis, providing a push-over curve for the foundation system and considering both the raft-piles-soil coupling and the structural response of piles. The results deriving from the first two approaches suggest the necessity of retrofitting measures for the case considered. In contrast, the more sophisticated numerical approach, providing a significant insight in the mechanical response of the system, puts in evidence that, under its current conditions, the foundation does not necessitate neither geotechnical nor structural retrofitting measures. More generally, this paper shows that considering the raft presence may allow a more rational and sustainable design of piled foundations.

In the assessment of rainfall induced landslide hazard, both the comprehension and the theoretical interpretation of the inception phase of unexpected collapses are crucial. In this paper, the case of an infinite long slope is theoretically discussed by assuming the mechanical behaviour of the materials involved to be strain softening elastic-viscoplastic. Rainfall is assumed to induce variations, taking place with time, in the water table level and, consequently, in the effective state of stress. Consequently, accelerations in both strains and displacements, due to the temporal evolution of the perturbation, are not necessarily associated with a system instability or vice versa decelerations are not the signature of a stable system response. In this paper, from a theoretical point of view, the authors apply the controllability theory conceived for a representative elementary volume to a boundary value problem and demonstrate that (i) irreversible strains accumulate, due to the structural hardening, even outside of the shear band, whose thickness is a function of the imposed perturbation, (ii) local instability anticipates the global one, (iii) once assigned the temporal evolution of the perturbation, its frequency does not affect the system response.

Most of the bridges in Europe countries are now approaching their design life. Therefore, at present crucial is the choice of the most suitable retrofitting solution taking the current design standards into account. From an economic point of view the costs related to the foundations adaptation are not negligible at all, even because design approaches are in general over-conservative. For instance, in case of piled foundations, the presence of the raft is conventionally disregarded in the calculation of the pile group bearing capacity under general loading. In this work a pile group foundation embedded in a silty-clay soil stratum is studied to emphasise how the use of a non-standard approach may allow to make more sustainable the interventions. An extensive 3D pseudo-static finite element numerical analyses campaign, under general loading, accounting for the non-linear soil mechanical behaviour, was performed. The results were interpreted in terms of interaction domains for the piled foundation system (raft + piles).

Piled foundations are commonly employed to reduce settlements in artificial earth embankments founded on soft soil strata. To limit the number of piles and, consequently, construction costs, popular is the use of geosynthetic reinforcements laid at the embankment base. Nowadays, the complex interaction between geosynthetics, piles and soil is not yet fully understood and, in the scientific literature, simplified displacement-based approaches to choose reinforcements, pile diameter and spacing are missing. In this paper, the authors, starting from the critical analysis and theoretical interpretation of finite difference numerical results, introduce a new mathematical model to rapidly assess both (i) differential/average settlements at the top of the embankment and (ii) maximum tensile forces in the basal reinforcement. The model, conceived to reproduce the response of a pile belonging to the central part of the embankment, is the result of an upscaling procedure based on a suitable sub-structuring of the spatial domain (an axisymmetric unit cell) and on the concept of plane of equal settlements. For the foundation soil, drained conditions are considered, the pile skin roughness is disregarded, and piles are assumed to get the rigid bedrock. As generalised kinematic variables average and differential settlements are employed, whereas as generalized static ones the embankment height and the geosynthetic axial force. The model is validated against field measurements (where layered foundation soil and pile caps are included) and an application example of the model, used as a preliminary design tool in a displacement-based perspective, is finally provided.

The design of massive structures, like cast-on-site foundations for wind towers, is not an easy task for design. In fact, this kind of structure is not specifically taken into account by Eurocode 2 standard. The huge concrete volume requires a huge amount of reinforcement, even if only the minimum amount is selected, and it is not clear if the lateral confinement exerted by the truncated cone geometry, mainly loaded along only one radial direction, corresponding to that characterized by the fastest wind direction, really requires the huge transversal reinforcement conventionally introduced in current wind towers. Within the research programme developed in 2019 between Enel Green Power, the Enel Group company dedicated to the development, construction and operation of renewables across the world, and Politecnico di Milano, an experimental investigation, carried out on prototypes characterized by reduced scales (1:15 for the whole structure and 1:4 for the investigation of the only core foundation, where the cylindrical stem is anchored), was conceived to calibrate a reliable modelling with the aim of being extended to full-scale structure, optimizing the required reinforcement. In this perspective, the use of fibre reinforced concrete can significantly improve the construction time by giving a specific toughness to the whole foundation, limiting also the crack opening and the correlated durability problems in the serviceability limit states.

This chapter is devoted to the presentation of the most popular approaches employed to design mitigation measures. Initially, the mitigation measures necessary for a safe excavation and a permanent cavity stabilization are considered. Subsequently, the observational method, a design procedure aimed at optimizing the management of the unavoidable geological and geotechnical uncertainties affecting both tunnel design and construction, is presented. Finally, the long-term tunnel performance under accidental loads is discussed.