One of the main challenges in dike design in the Netherlands is to guarantee a sufficient safety level against the development of macro-instabilities in a dike. A case study was performed on a dike section at Herrewijnen-Opijnen, which is part of the Heesseltse Uiterwaarden in the Dutch province of Gelderland. The dike located at this site no longer fulfils the required safety standards, and therefore dike reinforcement is required. This thesis focuses on reinforcing this dike with the new technique of dike pins. Dike pins are grouted steel anchors, that are installed in the dike crest to improve macro-stability. The case study shows that the governing geometrical parameter in design is the centre-to-centre distance of the dike pins. The cohesion of the clay slope was the governing geotechnical parameter for the determination of the slope safety factor. Arching occurred for high values of the friction angle or the cohesion of the sand layer. A large decrease in the bending moment of the dike pin results from arching. In this parametric study, correspondence was found between the 2D and 3D Plaxis models in terms of slope safety factor and in terms of the development of internal moments in the dike pin. A design scheme was suggested, which shows that in most cases a 2D design method may be chosen. The proposed design scheme simplifies the design method for dike pins.

Throughout the years the requirements of sheet pile walls have changed. Therefore reassessment of these structure's reliability is of importance. In this thesis, Bayesian updating is used for the reliability updating task. Updating processes require measurements of the structure under known conditions. Although for practical and economical reasons failure measurements of structures are seldomely available. Therefore the research focusses on whether it is possible to update a sheet pile wall's reliability using service domain measurements instead. Parameter updating methods generally return the statistically most likely parameter values for producing the observations. Using a theoretical sheet pile wall case, it is tested if the Bayesian updating method is able to effectively return the true soil parameter values as the most likely parameter set. The results show that the Bayesian updating method is very capable of approaching the used observations with the updated model response. Also the updated values of the most influential parameters show evolution in the direction of their true values. But the method does have difficulties with returning the true soil parameter values, even when applied to a theoretical case and with the use of elaborate observation configurations. Recommendations are given on further research concerning the use of the Bayesian updating method, the different influences on its performance and method application limitations.

The design and reassessment of quays is subject to uncertainties. Examples of these uncertainties are the soil parameters, soil behavior and the current state of the structural parts. Especially in the reassessment of existing structures it is hard to prove a quay to be safe. In this thesis Bayesian updating is used as a method to reduce this uncertainty. Bayesian updating is a technique to probabilistically update the model prediction based on measurement data. One of the solutions to obtaining this data is test loading a quay wall. How to perform a test load and possible other solutions to obtaining the measurement data are not part of this research. The research focusses on how to use the data one obtains from a test loading. The effectiveness of test loading is reviewed by performing Bayesian updates with several fictitious measurement cases. Both Blum and a finite element model are updated based on fictitious strain and displacement measurements. The results show that Bayesian updating successfully reduces the standard deviations in all model predictions. This has a significant impact on the calculated reliability indices. The key benefit of performing a Bayesian update is that a statistically most likely combination of stochastic input parameters is determined. The thesis gives recommendations towards an application of Bayesian updating in practice and as fictitious measurement cases are used, an overall strategy is given for obtaining the required measurement data in practice.

In practice, many structures among which quay walls are designed according the Dutch national guidelines (CUR). Dutch national practical guidelines (NPR), with guidelines for renovation, is still in development for the building industry. These guidelines follow the Dutch Norms (NEN) and Annexes. The guidelines propose procedures in which newly-built or existing quay walls are designed. This study investigates the effects of past performance on the semi-probabilistic level I method for the purpose of design and evaluation of quay walls. This research is performed with a case study considering a CUR class III quay wall from. The objective of this research is gathering insight into the different aspects of past performance, among which degradation and information about survived years, on the reliability level and corresponding influence factors. Firstly, prior analyses including deterministic validation are performed. The output resulting from characteristic values of the cross-section is validated by means of Blum and analyses with the subgrade reaction method. The computed deterministic output appears to be in accordance with the results from the reference study. Afterwards, prior probabilistic analyses were performed in which the reliability, weight factors and corresponding partial safety factors are reconsidered. Failure mechanism ’yielding of front wall’ is a frequent phenomenon and is assessed in this research. Level II FORM is used for the calculation and level III Importance sampling for the validation. The cross-section is adjusted according the reference case and the results are reasonably in compliance with the results found by GeoDelft for CUR class III. The computed 50 year reliability index β = 4.53 and corresponds well to the target reliability level of βt = 4.5. Additionally, the situation in which random input variables are correlated and model uncertainty is included, is considered as well. These correlations and model uncertainty are determined based on previous researches among which. The cohesion of clay, internal friction angles, wall friction angles and water levels are correlated. The model uncertainty factor is lognormally distributed and applies as multiplication factor on the maximum bending moment. Explicitly, the latter results in a significant influence on the limit state. Effects given the reference period are considered as well. Large numbers of the dominant load variable q are simulated. The (extreme value) distribution converges to a Gumbel distribution with σ = 0.61. The stochastic distribution of the dominant load is transformed from and to different reference periods: 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years. Eventually, for posterior analyses the 50 year reference case is translated to an annual situation in which the annual reliability index and sensitivity factors are derived. Including model uncertainty and cross correlated random variables, one finds a reliability index β = 2.33 as assumption for the posterior analyses. The Equivalent Planes method (EPM) has already been applied in the field of flood defences for reliability updating. This method formulates an failure plane equivalent to two or more combined limit states. In this research, the method has been applied in the temporal context. This means that the Equivalent Planes method is considered in the derivation of the reliability given effect(s) of past performance. The annual reliability index and sensitivity factors are used in this reliability updating method. The autocorrelation represents the correlation of the concerned variable in time. Time-dependent variables including uniform load and water levels assume an auto-correlation of 0, other parameters initially assume an auto-correlation equal to 1. The annual reliability index and sensitivity values are iteratively applied in this method for combining limit states. The equivalent failure plane Z uses a simplified expression in the standard normal space. Eventually a time-dependent reliability curve, as presented by the green line in figure 1, is found. Without model uncertainty, the blue curve is obtained. A higher initial annual reliability index results in a relatively smaller increase of the conditional reliability index. Hence, the effect of past performance decreases when a higher start value of the reliability index is used. Due to the reduced cross-correlation between the water levels on both sides, the time-dependent reliability significantly increases. At last, the time-related effects of quay walls are considered. These effects include: • The irreducible time-dependent uncertainty related to the model uncertainty factor. Randomness or natural variation is included in the model uncertainty factor. This is performed by considering situations with a reduced autocorrelation ρ(Zi, Zj) (0.25, 0.50 and 0.75). The reducible time-dependent uncertainty of load variables including q, wa and wp. Knowledge uncertainties (epistemic uncertainties) are reducible in time, meaning autocorrelation approaching 1. The autocorrelations of the considered variables distributions are derived by using transformed random distributions. • Degradation by corrosion of the stiffest elements in the steel front wall. Corrosion is studied by considering the effects of a log normally distributed wall thickness loss according to corrosion curve 3. This corrosion rate affects the primary element characteristics of the equivalent combined wall. The correlation between the water levels on the active and passive is reconsidered and changed from 0.75 to 0.25. As follows, the below figures show the annual development of the annual reliability as a function of time t. Notice that the annual reliability index increases as the extent to which the uncertainty is epistemic increases. Further, the reliability converges less rapid to larger value(s) in case of auto-correlation approaching 0. In this research, corrosion is considered as an epistemic uncertainty. Two modelling approaches have been considered: an engineering approach, a second order approach. The engineering approach solely considers a reducing section modulus W, whereas the second order approach is additionally including the second moment of inertia I. Corrosion curve 3 results in both approaches to a flattening of the conditional reliability index as time progresses. In addition, the speed in which the influence of time-independent epistemic uncertainties decreases, is less in case of corrosion. Hence, the involvement of stochastic degradation negatively affects the extent to which the uncertainties are reducible. The updated reliability index is also calculated per reference period. This is performed with probabilistic calculation rules. The corresponding sensitivity values, given survival of previous years (see figure(s) 5), can be used in the semi-probabilistic level I method for derivation of the updated partial safety factors. These factors can be applied in the derivation of the design values per random variable considering a service life time t. Hence, the reliability of a quay wall and the transformed sensitivity coefficients can be updated with the Equivalent Planes method. Incorporation of degradation and other time-related effects is seemingly possible. However, further research with finite element modelling is recommended for verification purposes.

The Dutch flood defences are subjected to the new Dutch safety assessment program (WBI 2017) that incorporates the latest insights and safety regulations. As a consequence of the updated piping assessment model, studies are expected to identify more piping prone areas in the Netherlands, which makes it worthwhile to investigate alternative piping mitigation solutions that could be less expensive. A new potential solution is the Pipingontspanner, which consists of relief wells in combination with a water catchment area. The Pipingontspanner relieves water pressure fromthe aquifer and uses the water as counter pressure against the Uplift mechanism, thereby reducing the likelihood of piping. The study investigates the technical and economic feasibility of the Pipingontspanner as a piping mitigation measure. A problem analysis was used to identify the components that form challenges in realising the concept and pinpoint the research to the functioning, effectiveness and applicability of the Pipingontspanner concept. A hydraulic model and a design approach demonstrate the functioning of the concept. The hydraulic model describes the flow underneath the dyke, through the well and towards the basin above it. A critical point for the flow calculation appeared to be the time-dependent interaction between the river and the basin water level, which leaves only numerical calculation methods to describe the problem. The numerical program Modflow was chosen to predict the Pipingontspanner groundwater flow by simulating a flood wave scenario for a green dyke with piping problems and implementing relief wells and a basin. A parametric design approach was followed to create a Pipingontspanner model that could obtain the optimal configuration for a measure that can only be calculated with a groundwater flow model. For the verification of design configurations, relevant failure mechanisms have been included in this model. For the selection of the optimal configuration, a cost-benefit analysis has been used as an evaluation criterion. The Pipingontspanner model creates, calculates, verifies and evaluates the different design configurations. The effectiveness of the Pipingontspannerwas illustratedwith a sensitivity and a cost analysis. For a variety of subsoil and hydraulic conditions, the sensitivity analysis showed that the safety factor for Uplift increases substantially for higher permeability of the aquifers and slowly growing hydraulic loads. The influence of the cover layer permeability and storage coefficient is negligible on the performance of the Pipingontspanner. On the other hand, the costs analysis showed that well maintenance, well monitoring and basin dyke construction costs are the main cost drivers of the design. The total cost grows exponentially if the basin width behind the dyke is limited as the number of wells increases for smaller basins. The applicability of the Pipingontspanner was demonstrated through a case study of a green dyke in Tiel with piping problems. In addition, the design and costs of the Pipingontspanner in Tiel were compared against a traditional piping berm measure to illustrate the economic feasibility of the concept. The results showed that the Pipingontspanner is not only able to mitigate the piping problem, but it does so with a smaller footprint and lower total cost than the piping berm. However, the case study also showed that limitations in the current groundwater flow model setup required an adaptation of the case geometry to prevent the drying up of the top layer cells, which would terminate the simulations. The Pipingontspanner concept has proven to be technically feasible and economically competitive compared to the piping bermunder the conditions of: 1. a permeable aquifer with a minimum transmissivity of 25 m^2/d; 2. a minimum hinterland space of 10 m behind the dyke.

The application of reliability analysis in geotechnical engineering is relatively new compared to the other sections of civil engineering such as structural engineering and hydraulic engineering. However, due to its increases use in recent years, reliability analysis is planned to be included extensively in the upcoming Eurocode 7 (EN 1997). This research aims to compare the accuracy and efficiency between the applications of 22 selected reliability methods in 9 selected geotechnical engineering problems with various number of independent variables and modes of failure. The accuracy of the reliability methods are determined based on the Probability of Failure (Pf) errors, while the efficiency is based on the number of realizations (N) each method needs. The Monte Carlo Simulation is found to be the most accurate method despite its shortcomings in efficiency (ranked as the least efficient). Moreover, the FOSM method is found to be the most efficient despite its serious shortcoming in accuracy where it is also ranked as the most inaccurate. However, putting both accuracy and efficiency into account, the AK-MCS 0 order is proven to be the best method when applied to the discussed geotechnical engineering problems. The research also points out the necessity to perform multiple reliability methods for each geotechnical engineering problem.

Historically, people in flood-prone areas world-wide have (to a certain degree) accepted the risk of being flooded because of the benefits that flood-prone areas can provide; examples of such benefits are rich agricultural lands or trade advantages. Acceptance and benefits notwithstanding, people living in flood-prone areas have tried, and will continue to try, to reduce and manage their vulnerability and degree of exposure to floods. A typical risk reduction measure is building flood defences...@en

Dikes are crucial for the protection against floods. One of the ways in which dikes can fail is by the instability of the inner slope. Credible probabilities of failure for slope stability are essential for the safety assessment of existing dikes and the design of dike reinforcements. This dissertation focuses on improving failure probability estimates for slope stability by using observed behaviour and performance of dikes. Examples of performance information are survived loads such as flood water levels or proof loads, and measurements during such loading conditions. The research uses Bayesian analysis to account for one or more performance observations or measurements in estimating failure probabilities. Using multiple case studies, this research identifies the observations and success factors leading to significantly lower failure probabilities. Furthermore, Bayesian decision analysis was used to consider the cost-effectiveness (Value of Information) of performance information, to determine which strategy of dike reinforcement and/or uncertainty reduction leads to the lowest overall cost to comply with a given safety level. It is found that incorporating multiple data of the behaviour and performance of dikes improves estimates of the failure probability for slope stability, leading to better safety assessments and more efficient design of dike reinforcements. The cases considered in this dissertation suggest that savings of several million euros per kilometre dike reinforcement are possible (10-35% compared to the current dike reinforcement costs), for the Dutch situation with typically relatively high cost of dike reinforcements compared to the costs and risks of obtaining performance information. The use of performance information therefore contributes to improving the efficiency of managing flood risk in the Netherlands, and in particular the dike reinforcements in the Dutch Flood Protection Programme.@en

Flood risk management policy across the European Union is changing, partly in response to the EU Floods Directive and partly because of new scientific approaches and research findings. It involves a move towards comprehensive flood risk management, which requires bringing the following fields/domains closer together: the natural sciences, social sciences and arts; science, policy and practice; and engineering, spatial planning and governance. Naturally, this involves preventive fl ood risk management and flood event management, as well as learning from the past and considering future global change.@en

The ground is one of the most highly variable of engineering materials. It is therefore not surprising that geotechnical designs depend on local site conditions and local engineering experience. Engineering practices, relating to investigation and design methods (site understanding) and to safety levels acceptable to society, will therefore vary between different regions. The challenge in geotechnical engineering is to make use of worldwide geotechnical experience, established over many years, to aid in the development and harmonization of geotechnical design codes. Given the significant uncertainties involved, empiricism and engineering judgment will undoubtedly always be an essential element of geotechnical design. However, rigorous and scientific approaches based on probability theory are finding increased attention in the calibration of modern geotechnical codes of practice and these codes can and should be used to aid fundamental engineering judgment. Containing contributions on Code Implementation, Code Application and Code Development, this book provides a single resource that code developers, practitioners, and researchers can use to understand the different choices made by national code developers around the world. Furthermore, the book highlights some of the key challenges faced worldwide concerning the ongoing process of harmonizing geotechnical design code specifications. @en

The ground is one of the most highly variable of engineering materials. It is therefore not surprising that geotechnical designs depend on local site conditions and local engineering experience. Engineering practices, relating to investigation and design methods (site understanding) and to safety levels acceptable to society, will therefore vary between different regions. The challenge in geotechnical engineering is to make use of worldwide geotechnical experience, established over many years, to aid in the development and harmonization of geotechnical design codes. Given the significant uncertainties involved, empiricism and engineering judgment will undoubtedly always be an essential element of geotechnical design. However, rigorous and scientific approaches based on probability theory are finding increased attention in the calibration of modern geotechnical codes of practice and these codes can and should be used to aid fundamental engineering judgment. Containing contributions on Code Implementation, Code Application and Code Development, this book provides a single resource that code developers, practitioners, and researchers can use to understand the different choices made by national code developers around the world. Furthermore, the book highlights some of the key challenges faced worldwide concerning the ongoing process of harmonizing geotechnical design code specifications. @en

The ground is one of the most highly variable of engineering materials. It is therefore not surprising that geotechnical designs depend on local site conditions and local engineering experience. Engineering practices, relating to investigation and design methods (site understanding) and to safety levels acceptable to society, will therefore vary between different regions. The challenge in geotechnical engineering is to make use of worldwide geotechnical experience, established over many years, to aid in the development and harmonization of geotechnical design codes. Given the significant uncertainties involved, empiricism and engineering judgment will undoubtedly always be an essential element of geotechnical design. However, rigorous and scientific approaches based on probability theory are finding increased attention in the calibration of modern geotechnical codes of practice and these codes can and should be used to aid fundamental engineering judgment. Containing contributions on Code Implementation, Code Application and Code Development, this book provides a single resource that code developers, practitioners, and researchers can use to understand the different choices made by national code developers around the world. Furthermore, the book highlights some of the key challenges faced worldwide concerning the ongoing process of harmonizing geotechnical design code specifications. @en

The ground is one of the most highly variable of engineering materials. It is therefore not surprising that geotechnical designs depend on local site conditions and local engineering experience. Engineering practices, relating to investigation and design methods (site understanding) and to safety levels acceptable to society, will therefore vary between different regions. The challenge in geotechnical engineering is to make use of worldwide geotechnical experience, established over many years, to aid in the development and harmonization of geotechnical design codes. Given the significant uncertainties involved, empiricism and engineering judgment will undoubtedly always be an essential element of geotechnical design. However, rigorous and scientific approaches based on probability theory are finding increased attention in the calibration of modern geotechnical codes of practice and these codes can and should be used to aid fundamental engineering judgment. Containing contributions on Code Implementation, Code Application and Code Development, this book provides a single resource that code developers, practitioners, and researchers can use to understand the different choices made by national code developers around the world. Furthermore, the book highlights some of the key challenges faced worldwide concerning the ongoing process of harmonizing geotechnical design code specifications. @en

Recent development have caused that the policy regarding the installation of onshore wind turbines on embankments has changed to 'Yes, provided that ...' in the Netherlands. (Simplified) approaches are available within professional practice to analyse the risk of liquefaction, but are considered to be conservative. In this thesis, a methodology is formulated to model the key aspects of liquefaction of a soil layer underneath a dike system subjected to cyclic loading by an onshore wind turbine. The key aspects are defined as: cyclic loading, soil-structure interaction and consolidation behaviour. A modification to the model of Seed and Rahman (1978) is implemented in this thesis. The applicable modelling conditions (quasi-static or dynamic) are investigated for the current situation. The analysis is performed using analytic and numerical models (Plaxis 2D). Both models conclude that the loads induced by the wind turbine can be modelled as quasi-static as the loads are sufficiently slow to neglect inertia effects. The influence of the cyclic loads by the wind turbine on the liquefiable soil layer is determined by the Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR). The influence due to the soil-structure interaction is determined using a Finite Element Analysis (Plaxis 2D). The Hardening Soil small strain model gives a more accurate prediction of the CSR in the soil, as the soil response is stiffer during un/re-loading. The presence of the embankment results in various modes of shearing in the soil, e.g. triaxial compression, triaxial extension and direct simple shear. The CSR does not include the effect of static shear stresses and various modes of shearing in the soil. This effect should rather be accounted by the Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR). The consolidation behaviour modelled using the model of Seed and Rahman (1978) which applies the consolidation equation with generation term. The model is able to model partial consolidation, which is defined as a state where excess pore pressures can be generated and dissipate simultaneously. The generation term is based on an empirical relationship of the development of pore pressures. The model is implemented using a Finite Difference Method in a cylindrical coordinate system to represent the dissipation behaviour of a granular soil. The method allows to model the consolidation characteristics in radial and vertical direction, a layered soil, the load intensity and the loading frequency. As a result, the maximum pore pressure ratio in the soil reduces. A limitation of the model is its uncoupled nature. Therefore, no strains are determined. The constitutive behaviour inherent to the liquefaction phenomena, such as plastic deformations, is lacking. Oostpolderdijk is used as a case study to compare the modified method of Seed and Rahman (1978) to the reference engineering method and the method of Boulanger and Idriss (2014). The comparison with Boulanger and Idriss (2014) suggests that the modified model gives reasonable results. The application of the modified method results in a more favourable result compared to the reference engineering method. However, a sensitivity analysis shows that liquefaction can’t be ruled out because the sensitivity to permeability is high.

Soil properties used to determine the stability of soil structures are variable in nature. Uncertainty in soil can be attributed to its inherent variability, as well as sources of error encountered while estimating the magnitude of its properties. The modelling of these uncertainties will produce more meaningful solutions when evaluating stability. This is especially relevant when quantifying the probability and risk associated with a rare event of failure. An uncertainty framework is implemented in this report to evaluate improbable slope failure. A slope stability program using a modified subset simulation approach is expanded to account for cross-correlation between cohesion, friction angle and unit weight of soil. The mean of the three soil properties and their correlation coefficients are treated as random variables in the analysis. A parametric study is performed to evaluate the influence of the mean and correlation coefficients of these properties on the probability of failure. The influence of randomising these properties is also evaluated in the analysis. The implemented method is applied for a practical slope example, based on values reported in literature for the expected variability in the mentioned soil properties. Results demonstrate that modelling the mean of C, phi and gamma as a random variable leads to a significant increase in the probability of failure for a slope. While treating the correlation coefficients as random in the analysis will lead to very little changes in the outcome, some generated correlation matrices may lead to a notable decrease in probability of failure. The stability of the slope is heavily influenced by the input parameters used in the analysis. Furthermore, a proper choice for coefficient of variation of each property and the horizontal and vertical scales of fluctuation is necessary to avoid inaccurate results in the analysis. Other inputs investigated include the type of distribution for each soil property and the range of possible values for their means. Different distribution types are tested in the analysis to identify which of these properly model the variability in the parameter. By evaluating generated samples within each subset level, it is evident that a combination of low mean values for C and positive correlation between phi and gamma is required for failure at low probability of failure levels. Although the influence of set means of C, phi and gamma on the calculated probability of failure is similar, the same conclusion cannot be made when the means of the properties are random. At low probability of failure levels, the outcome is very sensitive to changes in the minimum possible value for C and less to changes in phi and gamma. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the mode of failure may be overestimated when analysing stability by reducing the strength of the slope. Shallow failures are encountered when slope is failing under a strength reduction factor of 1, which is a more likely mode of failure in spatially variable soil.