The city of Amsterdam contains about 1600 bridges and 600 kilometres of quay walls. Of these walls, about 200 kilometres are of masonry walls placed on a timber floor and founded on timber piles. These quay walls are sometimes over 100 years old. Due to the increasing loads in the past century and the degrading of material properties in the masonry wall and timber elements, the quay walls are in bad shape. When designing a quay wall, a cross-sectional analysis is used to calculate the desired dimensions to withstand the loads. When this calculation is performed on a quay wall over a 100 years old, containing a failing pile foundation, the quay wall should fail. However, many of the quay walls under the condition of a partly failing foundation, are deforming, but still standing. During recent years, at 16 locations in Amsterdam, the risk of collapse appeared imminent, and emergency structures are put into place. Possible practical measures are removing trees on the quay walls, traffic limitations in the city centre and placing temporary struts and sheet piles to provide stability. Since the scale of the problem in Amsterdam is large, the time to renovate all the quay walls is lengthy. Therefore, there is a need for knowledge on the state of quay walls at the end of their life phase when partly failing. Different failure mechanisms occur, and various measures are developed to control those and provide (temporary) stability. This research answers the question: How can 2D analyses of quay walls, in multiple directions, under the condition of a partly failing foundation, provide insight into the hidden structural capacity within the masonry work? The study focuses on the severeness and scale of the foundation defects in the quay wall's cross-sectional and longitudinal direction. For the longitudinal models, the effects of the masonry material qualities are studied by using different material properties. Also examined is the effect of the failing foundation pile's post-peak behaviour, modelled as brittle and checked for plastic behaviour. Finally, the relevancy of the timber floor is studied for a stiff continuous floor and most notable, the full removal of the floor. To study this, two 2D regular plane stress, nonlinear elastic, finite element models are created in Diana FEA. The foundation piles are modelled as nonlinear elastic springs via a force-displacement diagram. The foundation piles' defects are modelled by assuming a smaller pile diameter, resulting in a weaker force-displacement diagram and larger displacements in the quay wall system. The foundation defects can be scaled over a small or big area by adapting multiple foundation piles over the length of the quay wall. The masonry's behaviour is researched by using a macro material model using smeared material properties for the brick and mortar, resulting in a continuous material. The material model used is the Total Strain Rotating Crack Model, which can be used in a 3D analysis of the quay wall system in future research. Finally, the interface between the timber floor and masonry is modelled using a coulomb friction interface criterion. This simulates the effects of the mortar layer connecting the timber floor and masonry work in a quay wall. The results conclude that analysing a foundation defect in the cross-sectional direction of the quay wall results in instability of the wall without further horizontal and vertical constraints to keep the quay wall in place. Modelling the pile foundation defects using a reduced pile diameter and consequently, a decreased force-displacement diagram as spring input provides the model with temporary stability. Ultimately, the cross-sectional analyses contribute little knowledge on residual strength and hidden structural capacity. Separately, the longitudinal model implements a vertical constraint in the masonry by using the bending capacities of the material. The results present an expected correlation between the scale of the foundation defects and the vertical displacements. Similar to the cross-sectional analyses, the reduced pile capacity of the foundation piles provides the model residual strength compared to the situation where the total failure of a timber pile is used. The timber foundation pile's failure mechanism needs to be researched in-depth since the results present a notable difference for crack patterns and force-displacement curvatures when modelled brittle or plastically. For brittle failure, a horizontal crack forms at the tip of the central, vertical crack, due to the abrupt enlargement in vertical displacement of the quay wall. The functionality of the timber floor in the longitudinal analyses presents itself when the crack patterns are analysed. The presence of the timber floor results in multiple smaller cracks instead of a single large crack when foundation defects of the quay wall system are analysed without a timber floor. It can be concluded that the masonry quality, most notably the tensile strength, affect the results significantly in terms of maximum values in the force-displacement diagrams and crack development. The material properties are based on Groningen masonry experiments, and it is recommended to perform experiments to the masonry quality of Amsterdam quay walls. Finally, the observed displacements related to the intervention points of the municipality conclude that foundation defects result in cracks for displacements below the marking points of 20 and 25 millimetres. For weaker masonry, the quay wall fails before the indication values. It is recommended to perform more measurements to the quay walls in Amsterdam and study the reliability of the intervention points.

When a quay wall does not meet the safety requirements it has to be replaced by a new quay wall. During the entire replacement project many stakeholders are affected. This can lead to resistance against the project. Resistance can be expected when the interests of the stakeholders are not (sufficiently) integrated in the design or construction method of the replacing quay wall. The high density of stakeholders in urban areas increases the probability that stakeholders will resist against the project. In Amsterdam the lead time for replacing a quay wall is up to five years this lead time accounts for the time from the decision to replace the quay wall until the realization of the new quay wall. One of the reasons for the long duration of the replacement projects is the time invested in dealing with the resistance of stakeholders. While the construction method of the new quay wall has influence on the reaction of the stakeholders, the reactions of the stakeholders on the other hand may influence the construction method. Therefore, in order to reduce the lead time for replacing a quay wall, an optimum between the construction method and the reaction of stakeholders is expedient. In order to minimize the resistance of the stakeholders it is advisable to take the interests of the stakeholders into account. The objective of the present research has been to develop a method to determine the construction method that will most be in accordance with the interests of the stakeholders, in order to possibly minimize the resistance produced by the stakeholders. C&S-matrix In this research, a method called “construction stakeholder matrix” (C&S-matrix) was constructed. This matrix connects the stakeholders and the construction method directly, by comparing the extent to which different construction methods are in accordance with the stakes of the stakeholders. Thereby, the matrix takes into account the influence of different stakeholders on the outcome of the project. The outcome of the matrix is a numerical value: the lower the number, the more resistance can be expected. The C&S-matrix is applied on a case of the Prisengracht in Amsterdam, four types of urban quay walls were selected. The outcome of the matrix is that the combined wall with inclined piles will result in the least amount of resistance produced by stakeholders. The C&S-matrix is a useful method to determine which construction method produces the least resistance. Since the output is numerical value it enables that the construction methods and the expected resistance can be compared, which makes this method unique. The effectiveness of the C&S-matrix mainly depends on the stakeholder analysis, it requires that all the stakeholders with their interest are identified and that the power-vs-interest grid resembles the actual power and interest of the stakeholders. This method predicts which stakeholders will most likely resist, this gives information for other measures to reduce this resistance for example compensation.

Fiber-reinforcedplastic (FRP) is an upcoming material in the construction industry due tocharacteristic material properties such as its high resistance to corrosion andhigh strength to density ratio. Also, it is often claimed that structures fromFRP have lower life-cycle costs and eco burden compared to constructions madefrom steel, concrete, or wood; this can be attributed to the low amount ofrequired maintenance and longer life span of FRP. Therefore, FRP seems a verysuitable material in the harsh environments where hydraulic structures residecompared to conventional materials.No actual commercial jetties, besidessmall pedestrian jetties, are yet constructed from FRP: knowledge regarding thepotential financial savings or the environmental impact of such jetties are notwell known. Also, specific consequences of constructing a jetty from FRP areunknown, as well the ability of FRP jetties to maintain their structuralcapabilities over their entire life-time. Therefore, this thesis investigatesthe feasibility of FRP jetties and judges whether FRP jetties are betteralternatives than jetties constructed fromtraditional materials. In the scope of this thesis, the research is narrowed down to comparing FRP withreinforce concrete (RC).The main design challenge of FRP incivil engineering related structures is coping with the relatively lowstiffness of FRP, as this presumably determines the dimensions of thestructural elements and restrictions of the structure as a whole. Governingstructural safety criteria in steel and concrete are more often strengthrelated. The research rests on a case study of an RC jetty, which provides boundaryconditions and a program of requirements. An FRP jetty is designed whichcomplies with the structural criteria. These criteria were both extracted fromthe case study and provided by the CUR96, a Dutch design guideline for FRP incivil engineering practice. Most structural elements are designed from scratch:laminates are designed for the flanges and webs in a composite calculator namedeLamX2. The finite element method (FEM) software program SCIA Engineer is usedfor the structural analysis. One dimensional structural elements were firstvalidated before utilizing them in the FEM model. The pile properties anddimensions are based on contemporary literature and commercially availableproducts. The driveability of the FRP piles is researched by means of Wave EquationAnalysis of Piles (WEAP), for which the program AllwavePDP is utilized.Furthermore, sustainability aspects of both jetties are researched by means ofa Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The LCA determines how much equivalentgreenhouse gases are expelled over the life-time of the jetties for a set ofimpact categories. These results are normalized by calculating the respectiveshadow costs for each impact category; this makes the total environmentalimpact of the structures comparable. The financial feasibility is the lastinvestigated topic; under various scenarios, life-cycle costs of both jettiesare investigated. The scenarios contained different variables such as estimatesof FRP raw material costs or assumed share of maintenance costs; end-of-lifecosts were not included in the analysis.The structural analysis of the FRPjetty indicated that both Serviceability Limit State (SLS) criteria and UltimateLimit State criteria (ULS) determine the dimensions of the structural elementsand the jetty design in general. The most crucial parts are partially embeddedFRP piles, which are prone to buckling. Initially, the FRP piles in thedetailed design were to be installed to a depth of 13 meter below ground level,but the results from the WEAP indicated that the piles refused duringinstallation before reaching this level. An analysis indicated that drivingshorter piles to a depth of 8 meter is possible: at this depth, the piles donot refuse and have accumulated sufficient bearing capacity by shaft frictionto support the superstructure. The eco burden of the FRP jetty was foundsignificantly higher compared to the RC jetty: in the base case LCA, therelative difference is 365 percent higher for the FRP variant. After asensitivity analysis, the relative difference is still 59 percent higher when comparingthe best-case scenario of the FRP jetty with the worst-case scenario of the RCjetty. The RC jetty also performed better than the FRP jetty regardinglife-cycle costs in various considered scenarios. The relative difference inlife-cycle costs for the most favorable scenario of the FRP jetty is still 28 %higher compared to the life-cycle costs of the RC jetty.Due to the poorer performance of theFRP jetty regarding the life-cycle costs and environmental burden, it isconcluded that FRP jetties, for the time being, are not better alternativesthan RC jetties. Regarding the type of jetty, the conclusion can begeneralized. The jetty is designed for the turnover of liquid bulk; imposed loadsare generally lower than loads on Ro-Ro, solid bulk, or container transfer jetties.It therefore seems unlikely that FRP does seem to be a better alternative forthose cases. Regarding the material choice, the conclusion cannot begeneralized. The FRP jetty was compared to an RC jetty. Jetties made from steelor wood are likely more vulnerable to degradation in harsh conditions. Thedurability properties of FRP might be more beneficial to the assessment of FRP jettiesin these cases. Certain future developments might affect the conclusion.Innovation in manufacturing techniques and an increase of market demand for FRPcould lower the price. Besides, biodegradable FRP materials are being developedwhich potentially may reduce the environmental burden of FRP. Keywords: FRP, composite design,hydraulic structures, jetty, pile driving, LCA, life-cycle costs

It is no secret that (asset)managers are currently dealing with a difficult task to maintain and improve the quality of their assets. The main reason for this urgency is the change of use and the end of lifespan of these assets. This is especially the case regarding the inner-city quay walls. These quay walls are usually owned and managed by local governments. The city of Amsterdam in particular has a tough task ahead of them. Approximately 200 km of quay wall need to be maintained or renewed of which the technical state is unknown. A vast majority of these inner-city quay walls are retaining walls on wooden piles. The absence of this information makes it extremely difficult for the asset owner, to determine the current technical state of their quay walls. The combination of limited information and time have shown in practice that quay walls can fail at any moment. To prevent this from happening a variety of intervention measures can be deployed to ‘extend’ the lifespan of the quay walls (short-term). Thereafter a systematic approach can be applied to rebuild or renovate these quay walls (long-term). However, the implementation of intervention measures is an overall complex task due to the densely built area and the stakeholders with divergent interests. This study provides an objective conceptual decision-making model to determine which intervention method is best suited for a particular location while considering the impact on the city, stakeholders and organizations. The research revealed six important topics which need to be incorporated in to the decision- making model. The topics were determined based on literature review, a case study and interviews. These six topics are: the critical cases (1), failure mechanisms (2), intervention measures (3), characteristics of the physical surrounding and the intervention measures (4), decision- making criteria (5) and lastly mitigation measures (6). Additionally, three decision-making moments are identified.

The design and reassessment of quays is subject to uncertainties. Examples of these uncertainties are the soil parameters, soil behavior and the current state of the structural parts. Especially in the reassessment of existing structures it is hard to prove a quay to be safe. In this thesis Bayesian updating is used as a method to reduce this uncertainty. Bayesian updating is a technique to probabilistically update the model prediction based on measurement data. One of the solutions to obtaining this data is test loading a quay wall. How to perform a test load and possible other solutions to obtaining the measurement data are not part of this research. The research focusses on how to use the data one obtains from a test loading. The effectiveness of test loading is reviewed by performing Bayesian updates with several fictitious measurement cases. Both Blum and a finite element model are updated based on fictitious strain and displacement measurements. The results show that Bayesian updating successfully reduces the standard deviations in all model predictions. This has a significant impact on the calculated reliability indices. The key benefit of performing a Bayesian update is that a statistically most likely combination of stochastic input parameters is determined. The thesis gives recommendations towards an application of Bayesian updating in practice and as fictitious measurement cases are used, an overall strategy is given for obtaining the required measurement data in practice.

Quay structures play an important role in society. How much load these structures can withstand however is not certain. This MSc thesis contains insight into the load capacity of the old Amazonehaven and the current SIF quay structures. Both are quay structures which use a combined sheet pile wall, a reinforced concrete relieving platform, M.V.-piles, and two rows of bearing piles. The objective of this MSc thesis was to determine the load capacity of the structures, the models should therefore be as close to the actual conditions as possible. For that reason no safety and/or material factors have been applied throughout this MSc thesis. The approach is shown below. A literature study was performed to gain insight into the areas of interest that needed to be studied. This theory in combination with a review of the structures led to the critical cross sections of the respective structures. These cross sections were then modelled with conventional design methods (Blum and D-Sheet Piling). The Blum method determined the individual contributions of several aspects (loads, water, soil) to the horizontal stress distribution along the combined sheet pile wall and calculated the reaction forces using a set of boundary conditions. Within D-Sheet Piling the relieving platform was modelled by removing it, the loads that acted on it, and the soil that rested on it. The last method that was applied was a FEM software (Plaxis 2D). The FEM models were validated in three steps: First, by comparing their results to that of the conventional methods, it was found that the results of the conventional methods were within ca. 30% of the FEM results. Second, by comparing the results to actual field data, here the results showed both deviation and similarities, these deviations could however be explained. Lastly, by critically assessing the models to ensure that certain aspects were incorporated into the models correctly, this resulted in uncertainty about drained or undrained soil conditions for the thicker clay layers. The main function of both quay structures was the storage of certain goods, for that reason the only aspect that was not constant in the test loading set up was the magnitude of the primary surcharge. Both geotechnical and structural failure were taken into consideration for the quay structures. The results of the FEM models showed that neither of the structures had failed at their design loading conditions. For the Amazonehaven it was found that the magnitude of the primary surcharge at the first failure of the model was relatively close to that of the design loading conditions, it was incited by the exceedance of the geotechnical bearing capacity of the M.V.-piles. The first failure of the SIF model occurred at a surcharge that was more than 4 times the magnitude of the design loading conditions, it was incited by the exceedance of the normal stress capacity of the M.V.-piles.

The aim of this research is to investigate which design method results in the best approximation of the deformations of a quay wall consisting of an anchored combined wall with relieving platform, looking at the elastoplastic method and the finite element method. The elastoplastic method is performed with the program D-Sheet Piling and the program Plaxis is used as a finite element method. Measurements on a quay wall in Eemshaven Groningen are used to analyze which design method results in the best approximation of the real deformation. The D-Sheet model, after some adaptations in the calibration, gives a relative good approximation of the deformations, except for the deformations at the top. This deviation can be up to 113%.The calculation with Plaxis results in a better approximation of the deformation with a deviation from the measurement of only several mm. Comparing the results of both methods shows a large difference in top deformation. Two possible explanations for this large difference are investigated. The first explanation is that the modelling limitations of D-Sheet lead to different results. A simplified Plaxis model simulating these limitations results in a top displacement of 17 mm. Secondly, the difference in the input of the soil stiffness between both models is investigated by linking both stiffness parameters E and kh to each other using the relation of Ménard. A D-Sheet model with adjusted values for kh results in only a small change in the top deformation. The remaining differences in results are attributed to the difference in calculation method. Several variations are performed in a sensitivity analysis to investigate to which extent different input parameters would have led to different results. This includes variations in phasing, modelling of the bearing piles, soil model, surcharge load, sea water level and soil parameters.

In practice, many structures among which quay walls are designed according the Dutch national guidelines (CUR). Dutch national practical guidelines (NPR), with guidelines for renovation, is still in development for the building industry. These guidelines follow the Dutch Norms (NEN) and Annexes. The guidelines propose procedures in which newly-built or existing quay walls are designed. This study investigates the effects of past performance on the semi-probabilistic level I method for the purpose of design and evaluation of quay walls. This research is performed with a case study considering a CUR class III quay wall from. The objective of this research is gathering insight into the different aspects of past performance, among which degradation and information about survived years, on the reliability level and corresponding influence factors. Firstly, prior analyses including deterministic validation are performed. The output resulting from characteristic values of the cross-section is validated by means of Blum and analyses with the subgrade reaction method. The computed deterministic output appears to be in accordance with the results from the reference study. Afterwards, prior probabilistic analyses were performed in which the reliability, weight factors and corresponding partial safety factors are reconsidered. Failure mechanism ’yielding of front wall’ is a frequent phenomenon and is assessed in this research. Level II FORM is used for the calculation and level III Importance sampling for the validation. The cross-section is adjusted according the reference case and the results are reasonably in compliance with the results found by GeoDelft for CUR class III. The computed 50 year reliability index β = 4.53 and corresponds well to the target reliability level of βt = 4.5. Additionally, the situation in which random input variables are correlated and model uncertainty is included, is considered as well. These correlations and model uncertainty are determined based on previous researches among which. The cohesion of clay, internal friction angles, wall friction angles and water levels are correlated. The model uncertainty factor is lognormally distributed and applies as multiplication factor on the maximum bending moment. Explicitly, the latter results in a significant influence on the limit state. Effects given the reference period are considered as well. Large numbers of the dominant load variable q are simulated. The (extreme value) distribution converges to a Gumbel distribution with σ = 0.61. The stochastic distribution of the dominant load is transformed from and to different reference periods: 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years. Eventually, for posterior analyses the 50 year reference case is translated to an annual situation in which the annual reliability index and sensitivity factors are derived. Including model uncertainty and cross correlated random variables, one finds a reliability index β = 2.33 as assumption for the posterior analyses. The Equivalent Planes method (EPM) has already been applied in the field of flood defences for reliability updating. This method formulates an failure plane equivalent to two or more combined limit states. In this research, the method has been applied in the temporal context. This means that the Equivalent Planes method is considered in the derivation of the reliability given effect(s) of past performance. The annual reliability index and sensitivity factors are used in this reliability updating method. The autocorrelation represents the correlation of the concerned variable in time. Time-dependent variables including uniform load and water levels assume an auto-correlation of 0, other parameters initially assume an auto-correlation equal to 1. The annual reliability index and sensitivity values are iteratively applied in this method for combining limit states. The equivalent failure plane Z uses a simplified expression in the standard normal space. Eventually a time-dependent reliability curve, as presented by the green line in figure 1, is found. Without model uncertainty, the blue curve is obtained. A higher initial annual reliability index results in a relatively smaller increase of the conditional reliability index. Hence, the effect of past performance decreases when a higher start value of the reliability index is used. Due to the reduced cross-correlation between the water levels on both sides, the time-dependent reliability significantly increases. At last, the time-related effects of quay walls are considered. These effects include: • The irreducible time-dependent uncertainty related to the model uncertainty factor. Randomness or natural variation is included in the model uncertainty factor. This is performed by considering situations with a reduced autocorrelation ρ(Zi, Zj) (0.25, 0.50 and 0.75). The reducible time-dependent uncertainty of load variables including q, wa and wp. Knowledge uncertainties (epistemic uncertainties) are reducible in time, meaning autocorrelation approaching 1. The autocorrelations of the considered variables distributions are derived by using transformed random distributions. • Degradation by corrosion of the stiffest elements in the steel front wall. Corrosion is studied by considering the effects of a log normally distributed wall thickness loss according to corrosion curve 3. This corrosion rate affects the primary element characteristics of the equivalent combined wall. The correlation between the water levels on the active and passive is reconsidered and changed from 0.75 to 0.25. As follows, the below figures show the annual development of the annual reliability as a function of time t. Notice that the annual reliability index increases as the extent to which the uncertainty is epistemic increases. Further, the reliability converges less rapid to larger value(s) in case of auto-correlation approaching 0. In this research, corrosion is considered as an epistemic uncertainty. Two modelling approaches have been considered: an engineering approach, a second order approach. The engineering approach solely considers a reducing section modulus W, whereas the second order approach is additionally including the second moment of inertia I. Corrosion curve 3 results in both approaches to a flattening of the conditional reliability index as time progresses. In addition, the speed in which the influence of time-independent epistemic uncertainties decreases, is less in case of corrosion. Hence, the involvement of stochastic degradation negatively affects the extent to which the uncertainties are reducible. The updated reliability index is also calculated per reference period. This is performed with probabilistic calculation rules. The corresponding sensitivity values, given survival of previous years (see figure(s) 5), can be used in the semi-probabilistic level I method for derivation of the updated partial safety factors. These factors can be applied in the derivation of the design values per random variable considering a service life time t. Hence, the reliability of a quay wall and the transformed sensitivity coefficients can be updated with the Equivalent Planes method. Incorporation of degradation and other time-related effects is seemingly possible. However, further research with finite element modelling is recommended for verification purposes.

After the big flood in 1953 the Grevelingendam and the Brouwersdam were built as a part of the ‘Deltawerken’. By constructing these dams the Grevelingen was separated from the North Sea, which created the largest salt water lake in Europe. Several decades later it was discovered that during hot summers the deeper areas of the lake were leaking oxygen. This leads to a massive mortality of the fauna and flora living in these depths. Since this area is spreading to the shallow areas it was decided by Rijkswaterstaat to bring back a reduced tide into the Grevelingen lake. The idea is to bring this reduced tide back by constructing a sluice caisson or tidal power plant into the Brouwersdam. This tidal range was determined in a way that the fauna and flora on the islands could remain. Another problem that arises with this reduced tide is that it is unknown what the consequences are for the harbours around the Grevelingen lake and their structures. Brouwershaven specifically gets its income from the harbour and its tourism. This made the Gemeente Schouwen-Duiveland ask to investigate the consequences of a potential reduced tide in its harbour. This led to the following research question:’ Is there a necessity to adapt the harbour constructions in the harbour of Brouwershaven, or to secure them against the reduced tide in the Grevelingen lake?’. This research was started by investigating the different boundary conditions such as: • Wind 1,54 m/s Southwest • Occurring water levels +0,7 m NAP and -0,5 m NAP • Not exploded explosives Not taken into account • Soil structure Exists mainly of clay and peat, with a thick sand layer at -16 m NAP • Profile of the harbour bottom Design level of the harbour bottom at -2,75 m NAP • Shipping Limiting factors: ship draught of 2 m and length of 14 m • Flow rate through the guard lock In case of tidal power plant: 0,154 m/s In case of sluice caisson: 0,0719 m/s The new part of the harbour was designed after the closure of the Grevelingen. This is why the option was to check the stability of the structure in this part of harbour. At the end of the calculation it turned out that there was no danger for the structures to become unstable by the reduced tide. However, there is a statistical probability that the scaffoldings as well as the quay wall will be flooded once in a hundred years. The bigger problem that was found was the accessibility of the harbour. The harbour is now only accessible for ships with a draught of 2 m at a water depth of 2,5 m. Which at a lower water level would cause problems to safely enter and manoeuvre in the harbour. In the search for a solution a brainstorm session was held with the construction company ‘Aquavia’. With the help of a multi criteria analysis (MCA) it was found that the best solutions were: • Construction a new harbour in front of the guard lock • Creating a new function for the existing harbour and shifting the harbour function to a new location in front of the guard lock • Demolition of the sills in the guard lock and dredging the harbour to a deeper level In consultation with ‘Gemeente Schouwen-Duiveland’ it was decided to design the first and the last bullet in more detail. The first variant that was dealt with was that of the demolition of the sills in the guard lock and the dredging of the harbour. The idea here was to lower the bottom of the harbour and the guard lock to at least a level of -2,75 m NAP, which produces a volume of 5143 m3¬ of material such as silt to be dredged away. Which includes the possibility of: • Finding not exploded explosives • The quay walls of the oldest part of the harbour becoming unstable. Also the stability of the guard lock construction after removing the sills had to be checked. This unfortunately was not executed due to the lack of technical data and drawings of the reinforcement. Finally an estimation of 300.000 EUR was made to realise this variant. The idea for the second variant is to leave the harbour behind the guard lock in the state it is currently in and to construct a new harbour in front of the guard lock. In this way smaller ships can still use the old harbour whereas the ships that cannot enter the harbour anymore can moor in the new harbour as well as even larger ships. In this new harbour then there would also be a place to moor the fishing boats as well as a river cruise ship. Because of strict time scheduling it was decided to only design one of the important structures of the harbour, namely the harbour mole. For this design there were 2 variants to take into account. In the first variant the total mole construction (breakwater + the pier) was made of wood, whereas in the second variant only part of the breakwater was made of wood. The pier, however, was made of concrete. Finally it was estimated that the construction of the new harbour would cost 7 million EUR. Which is a big difference compared to the price estimation of the demolition of the sills in the guard lock. Both variants have their pros and cons. By demolishing the sills and dredging the harbour to a lower level the problem of the harbour is resolved while a smaller/ more optimised version of the other variant could enable more future prospects to be worked out for the harbour by increasing the capacity and attracting new functions to the harbour. This could of course increase the harbour profits.

Over the past years Fibre Reinforced Polymers, or FRP, have started making more of an appearance in civil engineering structures. They have the advantages that they are light-weight, do not corrode and theoretically require little maintenance during their lifespan. Originally they were used to construct reinforcement, cables and small bridges but more and more they are finding uses for larger scale structures. One of these newer applications is in lock gates. Locks are structures which are responsible for enabling water based transport while also retaining high water where necessary and are critical links in the water defence system of a region. Their gates also have a relatively large risk of collision due to the amount of moving vessels passing through them. In order to safely construct these lock gates from FRP laminates it is important that their response to such collision loads is well understood. This is the focus of this study with the aim to construct a model to help better understand the collision scenario. To make the theory concrete a case study is done on the lock gates of Sluis III which is situated in the Wilhelminakanaal in Tilburg. These gates are, at the time of writing, the largest FRP lock gates in the world. With the down stream gates being 13.9 by 6.3 meters. The event in which a Class III vessel collides with these gates will be examined in detail. The collision is schematised as a one dimensional collision using a series of springs and dampers to obtain understanding of the general collision behaviour. From this model it is concluded that the application of a load from the ship’s engine or taking elastic deformations of the ships bow into account has negligible influence of the results (in the order of 2%), simplifying the calculations considerably. This simple model is later advanced in three ways: Two numerical finite element models are used to determine the structural response of the gate elements on a global and local scale and a more advanced analytical model is made to account for non-elastic deformation in the ship’s bow. The gate’s structure consists of multiple overlapping laminates which together form the skins of the gate. The numerical model is set up in two ways, one of which is used to determine the overall response of the gate element and the other to focus on the interlaminar resin layer in the skins. The results show that it is of importance to apply the load in a realistic manner as the results may vary widely depending on bow shape and point of impact. The approximation suggested in the Dutch codes in which the load is applied as a distributed load of a 0.5m2 areas proved to be inaccurate. For this reason a dynamic LS-Dyna calculation is run using a rigid model of the ships bow to apply the load. The outcome of this analysis shows minor damage to the gate over a large area around to point of impact, but the stresses remain under the failure limit of the laminates except for the internal flanges directly under the impact. These flanges will fail, but this will not threaten the water retention of the gate. The stresses in the resin layer also remain under their critical limit. It can be concluded that the gate satisfies the requirements but significant repairs will be necessary to restore it to a fully operational state. The expanded analytical model is based on the fact that the force between the bow and the gate is larger than the failure load of the bow itself. The failure which will then take place will dissipate large portions of energy (in the order of 50%) making the current approach, in which this does not take place, highly conservative. The model suggested here is a segmented failure model in which parts of the ship bow fail completely once their failure load in reached. The results of this model are dependent on a series of inputs based on the ships structure and the damping during collision, but for all input values within their expected regions it shows a significant reduction in the amount of the energy that must be retained by the gate as well as a decreased sensitivity to the, hard to predict, damping factor. This model shows potential to reduce material usage for lock gates in which collision are considered governing. With further refinement this model could be used during the design of future lock gates to come to a cheaper design. Experimental data would serve an important purpose during this refinement.

The largest part of the European ports are engaged into addressing proactively environmental and societal issues in order to achieve an always more sustainable development. However, there are several sources that indicate that gaps and barriers exist which impede the sustainable development of many Mediterranean ports. In order to deal with the problems that are identified in ports and specifically in container terminals, which are closely related to their sustainable performance, a framework is developed. The creation of the Port Sustainability Assessment Framework (PSAF) allows the comparison of the current state of terminals with the desired state based on specific sustainability themes and consequently, evaluates their performance. Port sustainability is also approached by means of stakeholders' views and insights, throughout a questionnaire. The application of the framework in the case studies of Piraeus and Livorno, two container terminals of different sizes and challenges but both located in the Mediterranean area, proves that the concept of sustainability in the two container terminal case studies has not yet been embedded in the planning and operational phase as their sustainable performance is low. Another aspect that this master thesis addresses is the need to extend the Port of the Future Serious Game (PoFSG) in order to include in a realistic way port-city future developments and their potential impacts on the environment and the society, as well as to facilitate stakeholder engagement. Based on the results of the sustainability assessment, several weaknesses of the PoFSG are identified and tools are developed which can be useful for extending the PoFSG. The focus is mostly drawn upon two specific aspects: the scoring system of the measures' performance on “People, Planet and Profit” and the inclusion of relevant sustainability measures. Additionally, more general recommendations are made for the other aspects of the PoFSG.

The construction method of an overturning caisson is reconsidered. This particular self-floating caisson was applied for several caisson quay wall projects over a century ago. After the year 1914, the design was abandoned. After this time, rectangular caissons became more economical due to higher qualities, simplified formwork and easier transport. However, the caisson geometry allows efficient material use and a relatively low draught during transport. When the concept is considered for current quay wall projects, these benefits are still present. However, the magnitude of these benefits reduced significantly. When other aspects, such as construction technologies are included, the remaining economic benefits are estimated to become negligible. The economic feasibility of an overturning caisson could therefore not be demonstrated.

The abstract outlines a study focusing on improving the design approach for flexible dolphins, vital marine structures used for vessel berthing and mooring. Current design methodologies, particularly those outlined in the CROW C1005 handbook (2018), are questioned due to potential conservatism stemming from insufficiently calibrated partial factors. The study advocates for reliability-based assessments to address these concerns, which consider uncertainties inherent in dolphin design and quantify failure probabilities over their lifespan. The investigation identifies critical failure modes and determines main pile dimensions based on these modes, utilizing the API PY-curves for rapid computation in the design process. Probabilistic assessments, employing Directional Sampling, reveal the significance of berthing load in structural safety and identify soil parameters as dominant variables affecting fixity failure mode. Navigation conditions, ship arrival rates, and variation in ship sizes also influence partial factors, with recommendations provided for adjustments based on different conditions. The study suggests load testing to reduce uncertainties and increase reliability, exemplified by a Bayesian update from Calandkanaal full-scale load tests. Overall, reliability-based assessments yield insights into managing uncertainties in dolphin design, potentially reducing material usage by up to 20% while meeting safety requirements, and offering the potential to decrease failure probabilities tenfold when combined with test loading.

Quay walls are an essential part of port infrastructure, providing diverse functionalities for the quay owner and users. In order to guarantee the structural safety of existing quay walls, owners might want to maintain their quay walls or decide to reassess their safety. For various reasons, quay wall owners want to lower maintenance costs and postpone investments on their quay walls. Current methods for the reassessment of quay walls are partly depending on stochastic variables, which might lead to a rejection of the quay wall, while it is still safe to use them. Therefore, this research aims to develop an assessment method for existing quay walls based on observations of their real behaviour. This leads to the following research question: How can existing quay walls in seaports be assessed using real-time data of their deformation behaviour? In order to answer this question, a method was developed in this research for the assessment of quay walls based on their real behaviour. This method consists of 6 steps: . 1. The first step is the preparation of the data. All data is resampled to hourly values, in order to create a dataset with equal timestamps; 2. In the second step, Bayesian regression is used to create a prediction model of single measurement points on the quay wall; 3. The third step is to prepare the prediction models of the measurement points for the assessments; 4. The fourth step is the short term assessment of the quay wall. Real-time monitoring data is compared to the prediction model to assess if the quay wall shows safe deformation behaviour; 5. The fifth step is the assessment of the difference of the prediction models made for different measurement points on a single quay wall; 6. The sixth step is the assessment of the remaining capacity and the remaining lifetime of a quay wall. To showcase the method and to verify and validate various aspects of the method, an example case was used. This case consists of four adjacent quay wall sections, that have been rejected by means of load/resistance based calculations. The developed assessment method was used to reassess these quay walls. The results of this research show that the elastic behaviour of a quay wall is mainly influenced by the air and water temperature, the water level in the port, the groundwater level and direct loading. A prediction model created with Bayesian regression based on these causes was able to predict the quay wall behaviour accurate enough to use it for the assessments of the last three steps of the assessment method. The application of the assessment method to the quay walls of the example case show that three of the four quay wall sections have enough resistance. One quay wall section shows questionable behaviour, which can be related to an early failure during the construction works. The differences between the models of the different measurement points on the quay walls of the example case are all explainable by their location on the quay wall and the history of the quay wall. The most important explainer for the difference of the models of the different measurement points was the quay wall section on which the measurement points were located. During the monitoring project, reinforcing measures were taken to try to reduce the ongoing quay wall deformation. The results of this research show that the measures were successful for most quay wall sections. Only at the section that was already showing questionable behaviour the situation worsened after the application of the reinforcing measures. The conclusion of this research is that the six-step method explained above can be used to assess the deformation of a quay wall. Recommendations for future research are the broader application of the assessment method, the application of the assessment method with other monitoring techniques and the disentangling of the linear plastic trend in its deterministic causes.

Quay walls are an essential part of port infrastructure, providing diverse functionalities for the quay owner and users. In order to guarantee the structural safety of existing quay walls, owners might want to maintain their quay walls or decide to reassess their safety. For various reasons, quay wall owners want to lower maintenance costs and postpone investments on their quay walls. Current methods for the reassessment of quay walls are partly depending on stochastic variables, which might lead to a rejection of the quay wall, while it is still safe to use them. Therefore, this research aims to develop an assessment method for existing quay walls based on observations of their real behaviour. This leads to the following research question: How can existing quay walls in seaports be assessed using real-time data of their deformation behaviour? In order to answer this question, a method was developed in this research for the assessment of quay walls based on their real behaviour. This method consists of 6 steps: . 1. The first step is the preparation of the data. All data is resampled to hourly values, in order to create a dataset with equal timestamps; 2. In the second step, Bayesian regression is used to create a prediction model of single measurement points on the quay wall; 3. The third step is to prepare the prediction models of the measurement points for the assessments; 4. The fourth step is the short term assessment of the quay wall. Real-time monitoring data is compared to the prediction model to assess if the quay wall shows safe deformation behaviour; 5. The fifth step is the assessment of the difference of the prediction models made for different measurement points on a single quay wall; 6. The sixth step is the assessment of the remaining capacity and the remaining lifetime of a quay wall. To showcase the method and to verify and validate various aspects of the method, an example case was used. This case consists of four adjacent quay wall sections, that have been rejected by means of load/resistance based calculations. The developed assessment method was used to reassess these quay walls. The results of this research show that the elastic behaviour of a quay wall is mainly influenced by the air and water temperature, the water level in the port, the groundwater level and direct loading. A prediction model created with Bayesian regression based on these causes was able to predict the quay wall behaviour accurate enough to use it for the assessments of the last three steps of the assessment method. The application of the assessment method to the quay walls of the example case show that three of the four quay wall sections have enough resistance. One quay wall section shows questionable behaviour, which can be related to an early failure during the construction works. The differences between the models of the different measurement points on the quay walls of the example case are all explainable by their location on the quay wall and the history of the quay wall. The most important explainer for the difference of the models of the different measurement points was the quay wall section on which the measurement points were located. During the monitoring project, reinforcing measures were taken to try to reduce the ongoing quay wall deformation. The results of this research show that the measures were successful for most quay wall sections. Only at the section that was already showing questionable behaviour the situation worsened after the application of the reinforcing measures. The conclusion of this research is that the six-step method explained above can be used to assess the deformation of a quay wall. Recommendations for future research are the broader application of the assessment method, the application of the assessment method with other monitoring techniques and the disentangling of the linear plastic trend in its deterministic causes.

Quay walls are an essential part of port infrastructure, providing diverse functionalities for the quay owner and users. In order to guarantee the structural safety of existing quay walls, owners might want to maintain their quay walls or decide to reassess their safety. For various reasons, quay wall owners want to lower maintenance costs and postpone investments on their quay walls. Current methods for the reassessment of quay walls are partly depending on stochastic variables, which might lead to a rejection of the quay wall, while it is still safe to use them. Therefore, this research aims to develop an assessment method for existing quay walls based on observations of their real behaviour. This leads to the following research question: How can existing quay walls in seaports be assessed using real-time data of their deformation behaviour? In order to answer this question, a method was developed in this research for the assessment of quay walls based on their real behaviour. This method consists of 6 steps: . 1. The first step is the preparation of the data. All data is resampled to hourly values, in order to create a dataset with equal timestamps; 2. In the second step, Bayesian regression is used to create a prediction model of single measurement points on the quay wall; 3. The third step is to prepare the prediction models of the measurement points for the assessments; 4. The fourth step is the short term assessment of the quay wall. Real-time monitoring data is compared to the prediction model to assess if the quay wall shows safe deformation behaviour; 5. The fifth step is the assessment of the difference of the prediction models made for different measurement points on a single quay wall; 6. The sixth step is the assessment of the remaining capacity and the remaining lifetime of a quay wall. To showcase the method and to verify and validate various aspects of the method, an example case was used. This case consists of four adjacent quay wall sections, that have been rejected by means of load/resistance based calculations. The developed assessment method was used to reassess these quay walls. The results of this research show that the elastic behaviour of a quay wall is mainly influenced by the air and water temperature, the water level in the port, the groundwater level and direct loading. A prediction model created with Bayesian regression based on these causes was able to predict the quay wall behaviour accurate enough to use it for the assessments of the last three steps of the assessment method. The application of the assessment method to the quay walls of the example case show that three of the four quay wall sections have enough resistance. One quay wall section shows questionable behaviour, which can be related to an early failure during the construction works. The differences between the models of the different measurement points on the quay walls of the example case are all explainable by their location on the quay wall and the history of the quay wall. The most important explainer for the difference of the models of the different measurement points was the quay wall section on which the measurement points were located. During the monitoring project, reinforcing measures were taken to try to reduce the ongoing quay wall deformation. The results of this research show that the measures were successful for most quay wall sections. Only at the section that was already showing questionable behaviour the situation worsened after the application of the reinforcing measures. The conclusion of this research is that the six-step method explained above can be used to assess the deformation of a quay wall. Recommendations for future research are the broader application of the assessment method, the application of the assessment method with other monitoring techniques and the disentangling of the linear plastic trend in its deterministic causes.

This new edition of the handbook of Quay Walls provides the reader with essential knowledge for the planning, design, execution and maintenance of quay walls, as well as general information about historical developments and lessons learned from the observation of ports in various countries. Technical chapters are followed by a detailed calculation of a quay wall based on a semi-probabilistic design procedure, which applies the theory presented earlier. Since the publication of the Dutch edition in 2003 and the English version in 2005, considerable new experience has been obtained by the many practitioners using the book, prompting the update of this handbook. Moreover, the introduction of the Eurocodes in 2012 has prompted a complete revision of the Design chapter, which is now compliant with the Eurocodes. Furthermore, additional recommendations for using FEM-analysis in quay wall design have been included. In response to ongoing discussions within the industry about buckling criteria for steel pipe piles, a thorough research project was carried out on steel pipe piles fi lled with sand and on piles without sand. The results of this research programme have also been incorporated in this new version. Finally, the section on corrosion has been updated to refl ect the latest knowledge and attention has been given to the latest global developments in quay wall engineering. The new edition was made possible thanks to the contributions of numerous experts from the Netherlands and Belgium.@en

Inner–city quay walls fulfil a number of very important functions where the retention of water is the most important one observed from a structural perspective. Despite their importance, not all of these structures are very well maintained, especially the older ones. Each municipality has their own maintenance regime, depending on the allocated budget. Deficient quay wall management of a few municipalities in the Netherlands resulted already in several quay wall failures, but there are also a lot of those structures still in a good condition. The differences in quay wall compositions and internal force transfer mechanisms could be one of the reasons why some structures do not show signs of deterioration where others are in a very deteriorated state. This hypothesis is the starting point for the following research question: “What is the influence of structural deficiencies to the overall strength and stability of a wooden foundation system under a quay wall structure?”. The geotechnical and material resistances of the quay wall elements are used as a basis for the study to the influence of quay wall defects on the internal force transfer mechanisms. Five quay wall structures with different geometries in Rotterdam and The Hague are selected for the structural calculations. With the help of assessment reports, a few common defects are chosen which are likely to occur for these kind of structures. First, the displacements and internal forces of the pile cap beam in the middle cross-section are calculated when the structure shows no signs of structural declination. The obtained results are then compared with the same base quantities where one of the structural defects is applied. In this way, the effect of each defect can be determined. Although there are large differences between the composition of the various quay wall structures, a general conclusion can be drawn from the performed calculations. A larger number of piles under a quay wall structure has a positive influence on the redistribution of internal forces from a weakened spot to an unaffected part of the structure.

Extreme folding damage of open-ended tubular piles could occur during piling in onshore practices. Amazonehaven unique quay wall removal gave the opportunity to study king pile’s failure close to toe. King piles are primary piles in a combined wall system, exposed to static and dynamic load. It is argued that the unexpected pile toe failure have been caused by dynamic load because of the uniaxial direction of the extreme deformations. However, research into pile toe failure in Amazonehaven shows that hammer-induced driving stresses are significantly lower than material’s yield stress close to pile toe, given Amazonehaven soil condition. Therefore, the dynamic load has not been solely detrimental to the pile toe integrity. The main reasons for pile toe failure are discussed to be (1) pile imperfection, (2) pile inclination and (3) pile inhomogeneous strength. Bear in mind that, pile toe failure to such extent when not limited might lead to dysfunction of the asset during its technical lifetime. Therefore, counteractions must be taken to assure quay wall’s safety and stability while operating. The remedies when such a piling risk event occur could be: replacement, early maintenance, or a reduction in its designed storage capacity. The reactive solutions will bring financial consequences of pile toe failure forward. In other words, the client will experience a reduction in its revenues due to asset’s malfunction. However, when proactive process-based alternatives are implemented in the current procedure in piling industry, the probability of occurrence of the failure is to be reduced. Therefore, financial consequences of piling risk event will remain limited. The main personal objectives creating this master thesis are to present a: Compact, comprehensive, consistent, reader friendly, and to the point report.