Piled embankments are traditionally designed by using either guidelines based on simplified limit-equilibrium theories or advanced finite-element (FE) numerical analyses. Both methods have limitations: the former do not allow the assessment of settlements at the top of the embankment, whereas the latter easily become overly complex, hence limiting practical applications. This paper introduces a new mathematical model capable of reproducing, with minimal computational effort, the mechanical response of piled embankments modelled by means of FEs. The model is based on a set of fundamental principles, assumptions and phenomenological equations obtained from a deep understanding of the mechanics behind the FE problem. The model, evaluating average and differential settlements at the top of the embankment during the consolidation of the soft soil, is validated against full-scale test data and benchmarked against independent numerical results. The results are compared with existing formulas to evaluate the critical height of the embankment, demonstrating the great potential of the new model for engineering practice (giving nearly instantaneous displacement-based solutions for the design of piled embankments in a preliminary stage).

Mechanized tunnel excavation in soils causes over-excavations, potentially leading to large amounts of spoil and settlements at ground level. An accurate estimation of over-excavations is crucial in the pre-design phase for assessing costs, determining the appropriate excavation method and choosing the muck management strategy. Currently, the estimation is based on experience and data from similar projects, but it becomes difficult when project conditions are heterogeneous. Alternatively, finite element analyses are time-consuming and not suitable for early design stages and, therefore, simplified tools are needed. In this paper, the authors present a simplified approach putting in relation face extrusion with estimated spoil mass and face volume loss. This approach, conceived for deep tunnels, is the extension to the case of mechanized tunnelling of a hydro-mechanical coupled meta-model derived from finite element numerical analyses for tunnels in clayey soils excavated by using conventional techniques (i.e. without any use of tunnel boring machines). The model has been validated against field data relative to a case study. The approach can be used in the early design process to identify tunnel boring machine characteristics and provide preliminary cost estimates. Additionally, during the construction phase, the method can be employed to interpret monitoring data and pre-design mitigation measures for unforeseen soil profile variations.

Piled foundations are commonly employed to reduce settlements in artificial earth embankments founded on soft soil strata. To limit the number of piles and, consequently, construction costs, popular is the use of geosynthetic reinforcements laid at the embankment base. Nowadays, the complex interaction between geosynthetics, piles and soil is not yet fully understood and, in the scientific literature, simplified displacement-based approaches to choose reinforcements, pile diameter and spacing are missing. In this paper, the authors, starting from the critical analysis and theoretical interpretation of finite difference numerical results, introduce a new mathematical model to rapidly assess both (i) differential/average settlements at the top of the embankment and (ii) maximum tensile forces in the basal reinforcement. The model, conceived to reproduce the response of a pile belonging to the central part of the embankment, is the result of an upscaling procedure based on a suitable sub-structuring of the spatial domain (an axisymmetric unit cell) and on the concept of plane of equal settlements. For the foundation soil, drained conditions are considered, the pile skin roughness is disregarded, and piles are assumed to get the rigid bedrock. As generalised kinematic variables average and differential settlements are employed, whereas as generalized static ones the embankment height and the geosynthetic axial force. The model is validated against field measurements (where layered foundation soil and pile caps are included) and an application example of the model, used as a preliminary design tool in a displacement-based perspective, is finally provided.

Anchored wire meshes are commonly adopted to stabilize potentially unstable soil slopes. This reinforcement technique, employed either as an active or a passive anchoring system, is commonly designed according to ultimate limit state approaches. In this paper, an interaction model, useful for the design of anchored wire meshes, is proposed. The model is based on the results of a series of 3D large displacement finite element numerical analyses, in which the wire mesh mechanical behaviour is modelled as either an elastic or an elastic–plastic membrane. The model is inspired to standard load–displacement curves for shallow foundations, and the wire mesh presence is taken into account by suitably modifying the bearing capacity formula. The proposed model predictions are compared with experimental punching test results. The use of the model, only requiring the definition of geometry and soil–wire mesh mechanical properties, allows the pre-design of the reinforcement system without performing ad hoc finite element numerical analyses.

The use of piles as settlement reducers in the design of artificial embankments on soft soil strata is nowadays very common. The design methods employed in the current engineering practice are based on simplified approaches not allowing the assessment of average and differential settlements at the top of the embankment. In this paper, a model to estimate both differential and average displacements at the top of the embankment is introduced. This, based on the choice of substructuring the spatial domain and employing a suitably conceived upscaling procedure, is an extension to the case of rough pile shafts of a model originally conceived by the authors for smooth piles. To conceive and calibrate the model, the authors performed a series of numerical simulations mainly aimed at highlighting the mechanical processes taking place at the pile shaft. From a practical point of view, this model can fruitfully be employed in displacement based design approaches and to optimize pile diameter and spacing.

The increasing demand of sustainability of the construction of new structures and the necessity of verifying/retrofitting the existing ones require reliable design tools. To this aim, fundamental is gathering new insights in the mechanical response of foundations. As far as shallow foundations are concerned, one aspect commonly disregarded in the current engineering practice is the influence of the mechanical interaction among adjacent foundations. The authors approach this problem by performing a parametric finite element non-linear numerical study on a squared shallow foundation, loaded by a vertical centred load under fully drained conditions. The numerical results put in evidence that the interaction, for any spacing value, causes an initial increase in settlements, whereas the dependence of bearing capacity on spacing seems to be, according to the case, either beneficial or detrimental. For particular geometries and mechanical properties, the reduction in bearing capacity may reach about the 30%. These dependences are justified in the light of the findings at the local scale, i.e. discussing the spatial distributions of irreversible strain, displacement and stress fields as the applied load increases. Finally, the authors have proposed a simplified design approach to derive not only the bearing capacity, but also a preliminary prediction in terms of displacements accounting for the reciprocal foundation interaction.

Piled foundations are commonly employed to reduce settlements of artificial earth embankments on soft soil strata and geosynthetic reinforcements are installed at the embankment base to increase pile spacing and reduce construction costs. Despite the well-documented effectiveness of this technique, the mechanical processes, developing during the construction in the different elements constituting the ‘geo-structure’, are not fully understood and the design approaches are based on very simplified assumptions. They disregard the deformability of the various elements constituting the system and cannot be employed to estimate settlements. With the aim of introducing a displacement-based design approach to optimise the use of reinforcements and piles, in this article, the mechanical response of the system during the embankment construction is studied by means of large displacement non-linear finite difference numerical analyses, in which the geosynthetic reinforcement is modelled as an elastic membrane. The arching effect developing within the embankment body is described and the evolution of the process zone, where shear strains localise, is discussed. The global system response is described in terms of (i) average, (ii) differential settlements at the top of the embankment and (iii) maximum tensile force within the geosynthetic reinforcement.

Tunnel faces excavated under particularly difficult ground conditions are commonly supported. In case of conventional tunnelling, this support is provided by either improving the mechanical properties of the soil or introducing linear inclusions. This latter technique, consisting in the introduction of fibreglass pipes in the face, is particularly popular since it is very simple to tailor to the different conditions encountered during the excavation the reinforcement spatial distribution. In the current engineering practice, this stabilisation technique is designed by employing simplified approaches not allowing the face displacement estimation. For this reason, in case of deep tunnels in cohesive soils under either undrained or ‘partially drained’ conditions, these approaches cannot be employed. In this paper, the authors present the practical application of a new displacement based design approach, based on the definition of the face characteristic curve, putting in relation the face displacement to the stress applied on the face.

Seismic-induced liquefaction is one of the main hazards for pipelines buried in saturated granular materials. When soil is partially or completely fluidized, a lifeline, although installed in superficial trenches in which the coarse backfill soil usually is compacted, may experience a sudden uplift and damages. To reduce pipeline uplift and thus limit the associated risks, the authors propose a sustainable and original mitigation strategy, suitable for both existing and new lifelines, based on both the use of a geomembrane and the compaction of the soil surrounding the pipeline. According to the design method proposed, the intervention geometry is selected on the basis of the pipeline maximum admissible displacement, whereas the minimum required relative density can be designed, based on the site-specific seismic demand, to avoid cyclically induced local accumulation in excess pore-water pressure. To prove the effectiveness of this strategy, a series of 1-g small-scale laboratory tests was performed on a pipe buried in a fluidized sand layer. A simplified displacement-based design approach, which was validated against the experimental data, is proposed.

In the assessment of rainfall induced landslide hazard, both the comprehension and the theoretical interpretation of the inception phase of unexpected collapses are crucial. In this paper, the case of an infinite long slope is theoretically discussed by assuming the mechanical behaviour of the materials involved to be strain softening elastic-viscoplastic. Rainfall is assumed to induce variations, taking place with time, in the water table level and, consequently, in the effective state of stress. Consequently, accelerations in both strains and displacements, due to the temporal evolution of the perturbation, are not necessarily associated with a system instability or vice versa decelerations are not the signature of a stable system response. In this paper, from a theoretical point of view, the authors apply the controllability theory conceived for a representative elementary volume to a boundary value problem and demonstrate that (i) irreversible strains accumulate, due to the structural hardening, even outside of the shear band, whose thickness is a function of the imposed perturbation, (ii) local instability anticipates the global one, (iii) once assigned the temporal evolution of the perturbation, its frequency does not affect the system response.

Most of the infrastructures in Europe are approaching their design life and, therefore, their safety under present conditions has to be reassessed. This is particularly crucial in the Italian context, since the current seismic design standards have significantly changed, being more severe than the previous ones. The goal of this paper is the critical evaluation of three different pseudo-static approaches for verifying at Ultimate Limit State a piled foundation of an existing bridge: (i) the standard one, neglecting the raft contribution and assuming foundation failure to be coincident with the failure of the most loaded pile, (ii) an analytical method, neglecting the raft contribution, but considering the ductile redistribution of forces on piles, (iii) a Finite Element numerical analysis, providing a push-over curve for the foundation system and considering both the raft-piles-soil coupling and the structural response of piles. The results deriving from the first two approaches suggest the necessity of retrofitting measures for the case considered. In contrast, the more sophisticated numerical approach, providing a significant insight in the mechanical response of the system, puts in evidence that, under its current conditions, the foundation does not necessitate neither geotechnical nor structural retrofitting measures. More generally, this paper shows that considering the raft presence may allow a more rational and sustainable design of piled foundations.

Most of the bridges in Europe countries are now approaching their design life. Therefore, at present crucial is the choice of the most suitable retrofitting solution taking the current design standards into account. From an economic point of view the costs related to the foundations adaptation are not negligible at all, even because design approaches are in general over-conservative. For instance, in case of piled foundations, the presence of the raft is conventionally disregarded in the calculation of the pile group bearing capacity under general loading. In this work a pile group foundation embedded in a silty-clay soil stratum is studied to emphasise how the use of a non-standard approach may allow to make more sustainable the interventions. An extensive 3D pseudo-static finite element numerical analyses campaign, under general loading, accounting for the non-linear soil mechanical behaviour, was performed. The results were interpreted in terms of interaction domains for the piled foundation system (raft + piles).

This chapter is devoted to the presentation of the most popular approaches employed to design mitigation measures. Initially, the mitigation measures necessary for a safe excavation and a permanent cavity stabilization are considered. Subsequently, the observational method, a design procedure aimed at optimizing the management of the unavoidable geological and geotechnical uncertainties affecting both tunnel design and construction, is presented. Finally, the long-term tunnel performance under accidental loads is discussed.

The current effort towards the progressive switch from carbon-based to renewable energy production is leading to a relevant spreading of both on- and off-shore wind turbine towers. Regarding reinforced concrete shallow foundations of onshore wind turbine steel towers, possible reductions of reinforcement may increase their sustainability, speed of erection, and competitiveness. The article presents the results of an experimental program carried out at Politecnico di Milano concerning both cyclic and monotonic loading, simulating extreme wind conditions on 1:15 scaled models of wind turbine steel towers connected by stud bolt adapters to reinforced concrete shallow foundations embedded in a sandy soil. Three couples of foundation specimens were tested with different reinforcement layouts: (a) similar to current praxis, (b) without shear reinforcement, and (c) without shear reinforcement and with 50% of ordinary steel rebars replaced by steel fibers. Additional vertical loads were added to the small-scale models in order to ensure similarity in terms of stresses. The test results allowed to (i) characterize the mechanical behavior of the foundation element considering soil-structure interaction under both service and ultimate load conditions, (ii) assess the foundation failure mode, (iii) highlight the role of each typology of reinforcing bars forming the cage, and (iv) provide hints for the optimization of these latter.

Structural modelling of wind turbine shallow foundations on granular soil strata deals with combined complex phenomena, such as soil-structure interaction, material nonlinearities, local stress concentration in both reinforced concrete foundation and soil. Numerical finite element analyses are performed employing three-dimensional elements for both concrete foundation and soil and one-dimensional elements for reinforcement. The results of the nonlinear static simulations are validated with experimental results of recent tests carried out on 1:15 scaled models having reinforcement ratios and stress conditions similar to the prototype foundations designed according to current codes. The validated modelling strategies are also applied to investigate the role of nonlinearities in both soil and concrete foundation, emphasizing the parameters and the nonlinear constitutive laws that significantly affect the foundation response. Three different reinforcement layouts are considered in both testing and simulations of the prototype: (a) complete prototype reinforcement, (b) prototype without shear reinforcement and (c) prototype without shear reinforcement and with 50% of remaining reinforcement replaced by steel fibres. A critical comparison is also made with models employing elastic two-dimensional shell finite elements lying over elastic supports, typically adopted for design purposes.

This chapter is dedicated to the presentation of the most popular methods of analysis employed to solve geotechnical boundary value problems, with special emphasis on the assessment of the potential hazards related to tunnelling. In particular, in Section 9.1, the general framework is outlined with reference to numerical solutions of coupled hydro-thermo-chemo-mechanical boundary value problems. In Section 9.2, the excavation phase is considered by analysing the response of the soil/rock mass close to the tunnel (‘near field’), whereas in Section 9.3, far-field tunnelling-induced modifications in stress and deformation fields and, if relevant, in the pore pressure distribution during the construction are considered. These analyses are instrumental in the assessment of the tunnel stability and in the design of the primary and final linings. Specific emphasis is given to some particularly demanding situations for tunnel construction and performance (i.e. rock burst phenomena, swelling or squeezing behaviour of the rock mass, etc.) requiring non-standard approaches to be implemented. Lastly, in Section 9.4, long-term system response is analysed. The accent is put on: (i) delayed/evolving with time strain and stress distributions (viscous and hydro-chemical effects, Section 9.4.1–9.4.3), (ii) seismic perturbations, (iii) gravitational and tectonic movements (landslides and faults) and (iv) thermal loading (fire in tunnel).

The design of massive structures, like cast-on-site foundations for wind towers, is not an easy task for design. In fact, this kind of structure is not specifically taken into account by Eurocode 2 standard. The huge concrete volume requires a huge amount of reinforcement, even if only the minimum amount is selected, and it is not clear if the lateral confinement exerted by the truncated cone geometry, mainly loaded along only one radial direction, corresponding to that characterized by the fastest wind direction, really requires the huge transversal reinforcement conventionally introduced in current wind towers. Within the research programme developed in 2019 between Enel Green Power, the Enel Group company dedicated to the development, construction and operation of renewables across the world, and Politecnico di Milano, an experimental investigation, carried out on prototypes characterized by reduced scales (1:15 for the whole structure and 1:4 for the investigation of the only core foundation, where the cylindrical stem is anchored), was conceived to calibrate a reliable modelling with the aim of being extended to full-scale structure, optimizing the required reinforcement. In this perspective, the use of fibre reinforced concrete can significantly improve the construction time by giving a specific toughness to the whole foundation, limiting also the crack opening and the correlated durability problems in the serviceability limit states.

In this chapter, the three phases of tunnelling process (planning/feasibility, engineering and construction) are described, by identifying the actions to be implemented for obtaining a fully serviceable tunnel during its assigned lifetime. The process has to deal with a series of unavoidable uncertainties and unknowns. Consequently, suitable risk management strategies should be defined and continuously adapted during the whole tunnelling process, considering the updated data derived from constant environment surveys and system monitoring.