Severe plastic deformation (SPD) of metals to obtain ultra-fine or even nano-sized grains has proven to be an interesting concept explored over the last few decades. However, the mechanical behavior of SPD metals and the underlying microstructural phenomena are not fully understood yet. In present work, commercially pure aluminum was subjected to high pressure torsion (HPT) deformation with strains ranging from very low levels to values well in the steady-state microstructure regime. The mechanical properties of the HPT processed samples were determined using tensile tests on miniature samples using full-field strain mapping. Orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) was utilized to follow the progression of grain refinement and texture as a function of imposed SPD. Local orientation based misorientation gradients helped to perform statistical boundary analysis and determine the fractions of incidental and geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) boundaries and local GND densities. From probability density distributions of the misorientation gradients two different stages of microstructural evolution, namely, fragmentation and saturation, could be discerned. The strength increased monotonously and the uniform elongation, though lower than the value of the annealed material, enhanced with the imposed strain in HPT. The post-necking response was observed to be highly microstructure dependent, where a lower grain size augmented the resistance for micro-crack propagation and enhanced the elongation-to-failure. In addition, the work hardening response corresponding to the yield point displayed maxima coinciding with the onset of the saturation stage. Anisotropy in fracture strain, observed between the axial and radial directions in a disk-like HPT sample, reduced with the randomization of shear texture, while higher intensities of the C {100}<110> orientation was considered responsible for the lower elongation-to-failure along the radial direction.@en

The aim of the present work is to study the microstructure evolution of a cold‐rolled low carbon steel alloyed with Cr, Mn, Mo, and Nb during continuous heating. The formation of austenite and its further transformation is examined by means of peak annealing experiments at three different heating rates, followed by quenching. The effect of carbide‐forming alloying elements in the kinetics of austenite formation and decomposition is discussed with the aim of DICTRA calculations. Electron Probe Micro Analysis allows the detection of small compositional fluctuations within the microstructure, which are responsible for local changes in the mechanism of austenite formation. It is experimentally demonstrated that the temperature dependence of the austenite fraction is relatively insensitive to the heating rate. It is suggested that carbide‐forming alloying elements slow down the kinetics of austenite formation.@en

Understanding the local strain enhancement and lattice distortion resulting from different microstructure features in metal alloys is crucial in many engineering processes. The development of heterogeneous strain not only plays an important role in the work hardening of the material but also in other processes such as recrystallization and damage inheritance and fracture. Isolating the contribution of precipitates to the development of heterogeneous strain can be challenging due to the presence of grain boundaries or other microstructure features that might cause ambiguous interpretation. In this work a statistical analysis of local strains measured by electron back scatter diffraction and crystal plasticity based simulations are combined to determine the effect of M23C6 carbides on the deformation of an annealed AISI 420 steel. Results suggest that carbides provide a more effective hardening at low plastic strain by a predominant long-range interaction mechanism than that of a pure ferritic microstructure. Carbides not only influence local strain directly by elastic incompatibilities with the ferritic matrix, but also the spatial interactions between ferrite grains. Carbides placed at the grain boundaries enhanced the development of strain near ferrite grain boundaries. However the positive effect of carbides and grain boundaries to develop high local strains is mitigated at regions with high density of carbides and ferrite grain boundaries.@en

In the present study, the effect of Niobium (Nb) on the hydrogen embrittlement resistance of Quenched and Partitioning (Q&P) steel is investigated. For this purpose, the hydrogen uptake level and its impact on the mechanical properties of a Nb-free and a 0.024 wt% Nb Q&P steel are thoroughly analysed. The hydrogen trapping capacity is evaluated via thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS). In-depth analysis of the desorption kinetics at different heating rates allows identification and quantification of the available trapping sites. The hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity of both steels is characterized using static and dynamic tensile tests. The addition of Nb results in an increase of the hydrogen concentration by more than 25%. The larger hydrogen content in the Nb steel, as a result of the higher fraction of grain boundaries/interphases, gives rise to a more severe embrittlement of the Nb steel compared to the Nb-free one. In addition to the larger hydrogen fraction in the Nb Q&P steel, the larger retained austenite fraction of low stability is detrimental due to the larger fraction of high carbon martensite formed when straining. This results in higher susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement of the Nb microalloyed steel due to the brittle character of the high carbon martensite that forms easily during straining. Under dynamic loading conditions, the hydrogen embrittlement of both steels is minimal, which is attributed to a reduced hydrogen diffusion and the suppression of the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) effect due to adiabatic heating.@en

Quenching & Partitioning (Q&P) steels owe their good strength-ductility combinations to the martensite/austenite (α’/γ) mechanical interactions and to the formation of mechanically-induced martensite (α′mech) through the transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) effect. An essential role is played by carbon, whose distribution among the phases can be modified through the Q&P route. This study presents a methodology to systematically and quantitatively examine the influence of the α’/γ mechanical interactions on the overall work hardening of the steel with respect to the role of carbon in the martensite. The methodology rests on the generation of a 3D micro-mechanical model that allows to derive, by crystal plasticity simulations, the overall response of a mechanically-stable α’/γ virtual microstructure. In combination with theoretical knowledge on hardening, the comparison between the experimental and simulated mechanical responses enables the quantification of the influence of the martensite carbon content and distribution on the overall TRIP strengthening contribution of the steel. The approach is applied to two low carbon Q&P-processed α’/γ microstructures of similar initial volume fractions of austenite and α′mech formation kinetics with strain, but one containing a Nb-microaddition and displaying improved strength-ductility values. It is shown that the martensite strength and work hardening ability might additionally enhance or partially counteract the strengthening contribution from the austenite-to-α′mech transformation during uniaxial loading. The results of this study highlight that the processing-dependent properties of the carbon-depleted martensite should be considered in the optimization of Q&P processed steels.@en

The article focuses on the effect of alloying and microstructure on formability of advanced high strength steels (AHSSs) processed via quenching and partitioning (Q&P). Three different Q&P steels with different combination of alloying elements and volume fraction of retained austenite are subjected to uniaxial tensile and Nakajima testing. Tensile mechanical properties are determined, and the forming limit diagrams (FLDs) are plotted. Microstructure of the tested samples is analyzed, and dramatic reduction of retained austenite fraction is detected. It is demonstrated that all steels are able to accumulate much higher amount of plastic strain when tested using Nakajima method. The observed phenomenon is related to the multiaxial stress state and strain gradients through the sheet thickness resulting in a fast transformation of retained austenite, as well as the ability of the tempered martensitic matrix to accumulate plastic strain. Surprisingly, a Q&P steel with the highest volume fraction of retained austenite and highest tensile ductility shows the lowest formability among studied grades. The latter observation is related to the highest sum of fractions of initial fresh martensite and stress/strain induced martensite promoting formation of microcracks. Their role and ability of tempered martensitic matrix to accumulate plastic deformation during forming of Q&P steels is discussed.@en

Because of their excellent combination of strength and ductility, quenching and partitioning (Q & P) steels have a great chance of being added to the third generation of advanced high strength steels. The large ductility of Q & P steels arises from the presence of 10% to 15% of retained austenite which postpones necking due to the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) effect. Moreover, Q & P steels show promising forming properties with favourable Lankford coefficients, while their planar anisotropy is low due to a weak texture. The stability of the metastable austenite is the key to obtain tailored properties for these steels. To become part of the newest generation of advanced high strength steels, Q & P steels have to preserve their mechanical properties at dynamic strain rates and over a wide range of temperatures. Therefore, in the present study, a low-Si Q & P steel was tested at temperatures from -40 °C to 80 °C and strain rates from 0.001 s-1 to 500 s-1. Results show that the mechanical properties are well-preserved at the lowest temperatures. Indeed, at -40 °C and room temperature, no significant loss of the deformation capacity is observed even at dynamic strain rates. This is attributed to the presence of a large fraction of austenite that is so (thermally) stable that it does not transform in the absence of deformation. In addition, the high stability of the austenite decreases the elongation at high test temperatures (80 °C). The additional adiabatic heating in the dynamic tests causes the largest reduction of the uniform strain for the samples tested at 80 °C. Quantification of the retained austenite fraction in the samples after testing confirmed that, at the highest temperature and strain rate, the TRIP effect is suppressed.@en

In present study, the potential of Niobium (Nb) to improve the mechanical properties of Quenched and Partitioning (Q&P) steels is investigated. To this purpose, the effect of the addition of Nb on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a Q&P steel was thoroughly analysed with special attention on the thermal stability of the retained austenite. The mechanical properties of the Nb Q&P steel were determined using static and dynamic tensile tests and compared to the properties of a Nb free Q&P steel. Additionally, the effect of test temperature was quantified by static and dynamic tests in the temperature range from −40 °C to +80 °C. It was found that the Nb induced grain refinement together with the stabilising effect of Nb on the retained austenite, resulted in an excellent low temperature behaviour of the Nb Q&P steel. Additionally, the high temperature, dynamic behaviour of the Nb micro-alloyed steel was improved with respect to the Nb free steel due to the presence of a large fraction of retained austenite with low thermal stability.@en

The mechanical behavior and microstructural evolution of a quenching and partitioning (Q&P) Fe-0.25C-1.5Si-3.0Mn (wt%) steel were investigated in a wide range of strain rates (10−4–103 s−1). The static tensile tests (10−4 and 10−2 s−1) were conducted using a universal testing machine, while high strain rate tests (500–1000 s−1) were carried out on a split Hopkinson tensile bar system. High speed camera imaging combined with the digital image correlation (DIC) technique were employed to study homogeneity of plastic deformation. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the microstructure evolution in the deformed zone and the fracture surface, respectively. The results indicate that the yield strength of the Q&P steel in dynamic tests (500–1000 s−1) is by 200 MPa higher compared to static tests (10−4 and 10−2 s−1), while the ultimate tensile strength tends to increase linearly with strain rate. The results of DIC analysis demonstrate that the homogeneity of plastic deformation is similar in static and dynamic test conditions. EBSD characterization shows that the retained austenite (RA) fraction decreases exponentially with the increase of plastic strain during both static and dynamic tensile testing. Additionally, examination of the fracture surfaces reveals the largest dimples in the statically tested specimens.@en

Ultrafast heating (UFH) experiments have been carried out in cold rolled ultra low carbon (ULC) steel, followed by quenching. The selected heating rates are in the range between 10 and 800 °C s−1. The recrystallization curves are slightly shifted to higher temperatures as the heating rate is increased. The average recrystallized grain size and texture are virtually unaffected by increasing the heating rate. Nucleation took place at grain boundaries as well as inside deformed grains. Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis reveals that the texture of grains nucleated inside deformed ferrite grains prevails at later stages of recrystallization. The results obtained in this work demonstrate that similar microstructure and textures are obtained after very short annealing cycles.@en

In this work an experimental method to determine the limit strain by means of digital image correlation is proposed. This method analyzes the variation of the thickness of a sheet metal through the temporal evolution of the strains, assuming incompressibility during the plastic strain process. To achieve this objective, the center and the edge of the necking area are identified with the strain history and the strain rate, respectively. The limit strain is thus determined when a non-homogeneous decrease in the thickness necking area begins, in contrast with existing methods based on performing analysis of surface strains. The proposed method is applied to determine the forming limit curve of commercial stainless steel and compared with other approaches. The results indicate that the proposed methodology is more reliable for determining the forming limit curve of the sheet, because it captures the heterogeneity of the strain distribution at the local necking site. The microstructure and the textures of the initial material are characterized via optical microscopy, x-ray diffraction and electron backscattering diffraction. The mechanical properties of the material are discussed in the light of the microstructural analysis.@en

The effect of ultrafast heating on the microstructure and properties of a low-carbon steel is studied at the microscale. Ultrafast heating results in the formation of a complex multiphase microstructure containing mainly martensite and retained austenite grains embedded into a ferritic matrix. The ferritic matrix exhibits a microstructure consisting of recovered and recrystallized grains. The recrystallized grains are softer and display pop-in events during nanoindentation, while the harder recovered grains show uniform deformation behavior.@en

Ultrafast annealing (UFA) is considered a feasible alternative processing route for third-generation advanced high strength steels (AHSSs). In fact, significant grain refinement occurs in low carbon steels (0.1 wt%) when heating rates (example, 1000 K/s) considerably higher than the conventional heating rates are applied. Additionally, high heating rates result in multiphase microstructures containing ferrite, retained austenite, and martensite/bainite. The mixture of structural constituents is induced by carbon gradients resulting from the short time available for diffusion during ultrafast annealing of the steel. Quasi-static and high strain rate tensile tests, with strain rates ranging from 0.0033 s−1 to 600 s−1, revealed that the tensile strength of both conventional and UFA samples increases with increasing strain rates, whereas the strain to fracture decreases. However, compared with the conventionally heat-treated samples (heating rate: 10 K/s), the UFA samples exhibited less ductility deterioration at high strain rates. The samples were investigated using light optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and X-ray diffraction. The results indicated that the improved tensile properties of the UFA steels (compared with those of the conventional steels) resulted mainly from the presence of retained austenite (up to 5%) in conjunction with a lower carbon martensite/bainite fraction. Owing to adiabatic heating associated with dynamic conditions, the stability of retained austenite shifted to higher strain values than those encountered under static conditions. The TRIP effect of the UFA samples appeared at higher strain values than in the conventionally heat-treated samples. The delayed transformation is considered essential for realizing improved preservation of the deformation capacity and, in turn, improved crashworthiness.@en