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E. Falco
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19 records found
1
Between consultation and collaboration
Self-reported objectives for 25 web-based geoparticipation projects in urban planning
Web-based participatory mapping technologies are being increasingly harnessed by local governments to crowdsource local knowledge and engage the public in urban planning policies as a means of increasing the transparency and legitimacy of planning processes and decisions. We refer to these technologies as “geoparticipation”. Current innovations are outpacing research into the use of geoparticipation in participatory planning practices. To address this knowledge gap, this paper investigates the objectives of web-based geoparticipation and uses empirical evidence from online survey responses related to 25 urban planning projects in nine countries across three continents (Europe, North America, and Australia). The survey adopts the objectives of the Spectrum for Public Participation that range from information empowerment, with each category specifying promises about how public input is expected to influence decision-making (IAP2, 2018). Our findings show that geoparticipation can leverage a ‘middle-ground’ of citizen participation by facilitating involvement alongside consultation and/or collaboration. This paper constitutes a pilot study as a step toward more robust and replicable empirical studies for cross-country comparisons. Empowerment (or citizen control) is not yet a normative goal or outcome for web-based geoparticipation. Our evidence also suggests that information is pursued alongside other objectives for citizen participation, and therefore functions not as a “low-hanging fruit” as portrayed in the literature, but rather as a core component of higher intensities of participation.
...
Web-based participatory mapping technologies are being increasingly harnessed by local governments to crowdsource local knowledge and engage the public in urban planning policies as a means of increasing the transparency and legitimacy of planning processes and decisions. We refer to these technologies as “geoparticipation”. Current innovations are outpacing research into the use of geoparticipation in participatory planning practices. To address this knowledge gap, this paper investigates the objectives of web-based geoparticipation and uses empirical evidence from online survey responses related to 25 urban planning projects in nine countries across three continents (Europe, North America, and Australia). The survey adopts the objectives of the Spectrum for Public Participation that range from information empowerment, with each category specifying promises about how public input is expected to influence decision-making (IAP2, 2018). Our findings show that geoparticipation can leverage a ‘middle-ground’ of citizen participation by facilitating involvement alongside consultation and/or collaboration. This paper constitutes a pilot study as a step toward more robust and replicable empirical studies for cross-country comparisons. Empowerment (or citizen control) is not yet a normative goal or outcome for web-based geoparticipation. Our evidence also suggests that information is pursued alongside other objectives for citizen participation, and therefore functions not as a “low-hanging fruit” as portrayed in the literature, but rather as a core component of higher intensities of participation.
User Acceptance of Technology
Statistical Analysis of Training’s Impact on Local Government Employees’ Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease-of-Use
Journal article
(2020)
-
E. Falco, Constantinos Stylianou, Gilberto Martinez, R.J. Kleinhans, Sara Basso-Moro, Haris Neophytou
This article investigates how training public officials from two municipalities in Spain and Cyprus with new technologies affects three dependent variables: level of understanding of the technological innovation being introduced, its perceived usefulness, and its perceived ease-of-use. The tests to determine the impact of training were carried out by means of a self-constructed questionnaire within a repeated measure experimental design. The results demonstrate that the three variables are indeed positively affected by the training sessions to users from both municipalities. Consequently, training plays a vital role in encouraging government employees and administrators to accept, adopt and utilize e-government technologies.
...
This article investigates how training public officials from two municipalities in Spain and Cyprus with new technologies affects three dependent variables: level of understanding of the technological innovation being introduced, its perceived usefulness, and its perceived ease-of-use. The tests to determine the impact of training were carried out by means of a self-constructed questionnaire within a repeated measure experimental design. The results demonstrate that the three variables are indeed positively affected by the training sessions to users from both municipalities. Consequently, training plays a vital role in encouraging government employees and administrators to accept, adopt and utilize e-government technologies.
Web-based participatory mapping in informal settlements
The slums of Caracas, Venezuela
This article explores the potential of web-based participatory mapping tools for urban planning purposes and spatial information creation in informal settlements, i.e. the slums (barrios) of Caracas, Venezuela. While an increasing use of mapping tools is found in developed countries, fewer applications are found in informal settlements of developing countries, due to issues of high informality, illegality, and a lack of information, human and financial resources. In the context of course-based mapping activities directed to neighbourhood Sector-level planning officers and action research, this study has employed a two-tier approach (planning officials doing the mapping and eliciting complementary information from the population) to online participatory mapping (Google My Maps) for urban planning purposes in the barrios of Caracas. Our efforts aimed mostly at identifying and mapping public facilities, and planned and under-construction public works. This research aims to show the potential contribution of such tools to planning informal settlements and creating locally-produced spatial information. The outcomes of the mapping courses have already proven to be useful for planning public projects across Sectors and Communes, mutual consideration of their priorities in the preparation of two-year development plans, and for increased awareness of local residents of communal councils.
...
This article explores the potential of web-based participatory mapping tools for urban planning purposes and spatial information creation in informal settlements, i.e. the slums (barrios) of Caracas, Venezuela. While an increasing use of mapping tools is found in developed countries, fewer applications are found in informal settlements of developing countries, due to issues of high informality, illegality, and a lack of information, human and financial resources. In the context of course-based mapping activities directed to neighbourhood Sector-level planning officers and action research, this study has employed a two-tier approach (planning officials doing the mapping and eliciting complementary information from the population) to online participatory mapping (Google My Maps) for urban planning purposes in the barrios of Caracas. Our efforts aimed mostly at identifying and mapping public facilities, and planned and under-construction public works. This research aims to show the potential contribution of such tools to planning informal settlements and creating locally-produced spatial information. The outcomes of the mapping courses have already proven to be useful for planning public projects across Sectors and Communes, mutual consideration of their priorities in the preparation of two-year development plans, and for increased awareness of local residents of communal councils.
The English system of developer contributions, planning obligations, remained unchanged between 1990 and 2010 and attracted major criticisms of causing slow, opaque, unaccountable planning processes. In 2010, the Community Infrastructure Levy (CIL) was introduced to reform planning obligations and deliver a faster, more transparent, certain and accountable planning process. This paper seeks to determine whether these objectives have been achieved by means of an online survey submitted to all English planning authorities between October 2015 and June 2016. The results (82 respondents with a response rate of 27%) show that local authorities that have implemented the CIL find it able to deliver advantages in terms of greater transparency, speed, accountability and certainty. On the downside, especially local authorities that have not yet implemented the CIL think that the new system is overly demanding in terms of required time and personnel and reduces in-kind and financial contributions from developers.
...
The English system of developer contributions, planning obligations, remained unchanged between 1990 and 2010 and attracted major criticisms of causing slow, opaque, unaccountable planning processes. In 2010, the Community Infrastructure Levy (CIL) was introduced to reform planning obligations and deliver a faster, more transparent, certain and accountable planning process. This paper seeks to determine whether these objectives have been achieved by means of an online survey submitted to all English planning authorities between October 2015 and June 2016. The results (82 respondents with a response rate of 27%) show that local authorities that have implemented the CIL find it able to deliver advantages in terms of greater transparency, speed, accountability and certainty. On the downside, especially local authorities that have not yet implemented the CIL think that the new system is overly demanding in terms of required time and personnel and reduces in-kind and financial contributions from developers.
Digital Participatory Platforms for Co-Production in Urban Development
A Systematic Review
A renewed interest has appeared in citizen co-production of public services due to financial pressure on governments. While social media are considered an important facilitator, many digital participatory platforms (DPPs) have been developed to facilitate co-production between citizens and governments in the context of urban development. Previous studies have delivered a fragmented overview of DPPs in a few socio-spatial contexts and failed to take stock of the rise of DPPs. This article aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the availability and functionalities of DPPs. Through a systematic review, 113 active DPPs have been identified, analysed, and classified within a citizen-government relationship typology. Almost a quarter of these DPPs demonstrate a realistic potential for online and offline co-production between governments and citizens. The article critically analyses the characteristics of these DPPs and explores their real-world applications in urban development. The article concludes with directions for further research.
...
A renewed interest has appeared in citizen co-production of public services due to financial pressure on governments. While social media are considered an important facilitator, many digital participatory platforms (DPPs) have been developed to facilitate co-production between citizens and governments in the context of urban development. Previous studies have delivered a fragmented overview of DPPs in a few socio-spatial contexts and failed to take stock of the rise of DPPs. This article aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the availability and functionalities of DPPs. Through a systematic review, 113 active DPPs have been identified, analysed, and classified within a citizen-government relationship typology. Almost a quarter of these DPPs demonstrate a realistic potential for online and offline co-production between governments and citizens. The article critically analyses the characteristics of these DPPs and explores their real-world applications in urban development. The article concludes with directions for further research.
Institutional fragmentation in megaprojects
Lessons from the Metro C project in Rome
A strategic infrastructure project in Rome, Italy, and namely the Metro C line, is presented here for scrutinising how institutional frameworks and governance arrangements shape megaproject implementation. On the one side, we look at legal endowments and institutional reforms related to a still incomplete territorial rescaling; on the other side, at routines and practices among actors in project management. More precisely, we develop these two fundamental acceptations of the institutional, reconstructing the management of the project and the path of Italian downscaling reform still underway (that has implications for the governance of projects too). Both these realms have been affected by the advent of the Legge Obiettivo, the special law that for fifteen years has been governing strategic projects in Italy-Metro C included. Via a review of regulatory measures, relevant theoretical constructs in the fields of governance and project studies, and with the help of a number of interviews conducted in 2016 and 2017, we delve into the main reasons that explain the Metro C implementation failure as to cost overrun and delivery delays, and found the primary causes of these latter in the fragmented public client role that cannot guarantee the project's governability.
...
A strategic infrastructure project in Rome, Italy, and namely the Metro C line, is presented here for scrutinising how institutional frameworks and governance arrangements shape megaproject implementation. On the one side, we look at legal endowments and institutional reforms related to a still incomplete territorial rescaling; on the other side, at routines and practices among actors in project management. More precisely, we develop these two fundamental acceptations of the institutional, reconstructing the management of the project and the path of Italian downscaling reform still underway (that has implications for the governance of projects too). Both these realms have been affected by the advent of the Legge Obiettivo, the special law that for fifteen years has been governing strategic projects in Italy-Metro C included. Via a review of regulatory measures, relevant theoretical constructs in the fields of governance and project studies, and with the help of a number of interviews conducted in 2016 and 2017, we delve into the main reasons that explain the Metro C implementation failure as to cost overrun and delivery delays, and found the primary causes of these latter in the fragmented public client role that cannot guarantee the project's governability.
Despite great advances in ICT, social media, participatory platforms and mobile apps, we seem to still be locked in the one‑way communication “paradigm” where information flows unilaterally from government to citizens and seldom vice‑versa. As a result, citizens are more receivers rather than conscious producers of information, data, ideas, solutions and decisions in the context of public policies. By means of an extensive literature review, this paper aims to explore the challenges on the part of government that prevent the transition to more dialogic governance and identifies the requirements for a meaningful application of social media for this purpose. The paper contributes to the literature in three ways: i) redefining a typology of social media‑based citizens‑government relationship; ii) clarifying the difference between challenges and risks of social media application by governments and identifying a typology of government challenges; and iii) identifying government requirements as a conditio sine‑qua non for overcoming these challenges upfront, enabling more effective two‑way interactions between governments and citizens. The paper concludes with discussion of implications and directions for further research.
...
Despite great advances in ICT, social media, participatory platforms and mobile apps, we seem to still be locked in the one‑way communication “paradigm” where information flows unilaterally from government to citizens and seldom vice‑versa. As a result, citizens are more receivers rather than conscious producers of information, data, ideas, solutions and decisions in the context of public policies. By means of an extensive literature review, this paper aims to explore the challenges on the part of government that prevent the transition to more dialogic governance and identifies the requirements for a meaningful application of social media for this purpose. The paper contributes to the literature in three ways: i) redefining a typology of social media‑based citizens‑government relationship; ii) clarifying the difference between challenges and risks of social media application by governments and identifying a typology of government challenges; and iii) identifying government requirements as a conditio sine‑qua non for overcoming these challenges upfront, enabling more effective two‑way interactions between governments and citizens. The paper concludes with discussion of implications and directions for further research.
The transfer of development rights in the midst of the economic crisis
Potential, innovation and limits in Italy
The paper deals with the transfer of development rights (TDR) in Italy. It presents a comparative analysis of the TDR programs implemented in the twelve capital cities of the Lombardy region in the past decade. After introducing the international debate on TDR and the distinctive features of the transfer of development rights in Italy, the essay analyses the specificity of TDR programs in Lombardy. The spread of this planning mechanism is stressed, and seven relevant characterising aspects of TDR programs in Lombardy are highlighted (with reference to: reasons for TDR adoption, designation of sending and receiving areas, allocation rate, destiny of sending areas, mandatory nature of the transfer, market of development rights and role of the public authority). The analysis identifies internal factors (e.g. related to the design of the program) and external factors (e.g. exogenous to the program, such as the condition of the real estate market) for the success of the transfer of development rights in the Lombardy case. It allows us also to enrich (and partially correct) the international debate on the TDR, by considering the diffusion of this planning tool in Italy and its potential.
...
The paper deals with the transfer of development rights (TDR) in Italy. It presents a comparative analysis of the TDR programs implemented in the twelve capital cities of the Lombardy region in the past decade. After introducing the international debate on TDR and the distinctive features of the transfer of development rights in Italy, the essay analyses the specificity of TDR programs in Lombardy. The spread of this planning mechanism is stressed, and seven relevant characterising aspects of TDR programs in Lombardy are highlighted (with reference to: reasons for TDR adoption, designation of sending and receiving areas, allocation rate, destiny of sending areas, mandatory nature of the transfer, market of development rights and role of the public authority). The analysis identifies internal factors (e.g. related to the design of the program) and external factors (e.g. exogenous to the program, such as the condition of the real estate market) for the success of the transfer of development rights in the Lombardy case. It allows us also to enrich (and partially correct) the international debate on the TDR, by considering the diffusion of this planning tool in Italy and its potential.
The use of different kinds of social media by government has been steadily increasing over the last decade. National, regional and local governments often employ social media to communicate and interact with citizens, organizations and/or other government agencies. However, as many authors highlight, the use of social media by government has many challenges, barriers and issues which undermine governments' actual use of social media. We argue, however, that prior research has to some extent overlooked the nature of challenges, in so far as it does not fully address differences between them and other elements, such as risks. This has resulted in a debate on challenges that includes both general barriers and risks of social media use by governments which, as a consequence, does not allow for consideration of the different actions that are needed to counter challenges and risks.
...
The use of different kinds of social media by government has been steadily increasing over the last decade. National, regional and local governments often employ social media to communicate and interact with citizens, organizations and/or other government agencies. However, as many authors highlight, the use of social media by government has many challenges, barriers and issues which undermine governments' actual use of social media. We argue, however, that prior research has to some extent overlooked the nature of challenges, in so far as it does not fully address differences between them and other elements, such as risks. This has resulted in a debate on challenges that includes both general barriers and risks of social media use by governments which, as a consequence, does not allow for consideration of the different actions that are needed to counter challenges and risks.
A renewed interest has appeared in citizen co-production of public services due to financial pressure on governments. While social media are considered an important facilitator, many digital participatory platforms (DPPs) have been developed to facilitate co-production between citizens and governments
in the context of urban development. Previous studies have delivered a fragmented overview of DPPs in a few socio-spatial contexts and failed to take stock of the rise of DPPs. This article aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the availability and functionalities of DPPs. Through a systematic
review, 113 active DPPs have been identified, analysed, and classified within a citizen-government relationship typology. Almost a quarter of these DPPs demonstrate a realistic potential for online and offline co-production between governments and citizens. The article critically analyses the characteristics of these DPPs and explores their real-world applications in urban development. The
article concludes with directions for further research. ...
in the context of urban development. Previous studies have delivered a fragmented overview of DPPs in a few socio-spatial contexts and failed to take stock of the rise of DPPs. This article aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the availability and functionalities of DPPs. Through a systematic
review, 113 active DPPs have been identified, analysed, and classified within a citizen-government relationship typology. Almost a quarter of these DPPs demonstrate a realistic potential for online and offline co-production between governments and citizens. The article critically analyses the characteristics of these DPPs and explores their real-world applications in urban development. The
article concludes with directions for further research. ...
A renewed interest has appeared in citizen co-production of public services due to financial pressure on governments. While social media are considered an important facilitator, many digital participatory platforms (DPPs) have been developed to facilitate co-production between citizens and governments
in the context of urban development. Previous studies have delivered a fragmented overview of DPPs in a few socio-spatial contexts and failed to take stock of the rise of DPPs. This article aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the availability and functionalities of DPPs. Through a systematic
review, 113 active DPPs have been identified, analysed, and classified within a citizen-government relationship typology. Almost a quarter of these DPPs demonstrate a realistic potential for online and offline co-production between governments and citizens. The article critically analyses the characteristics of these DPPs and explores their real-world applications in urban development. The
article concludes with directions for further research.
in the context of urban development. Previous studies have delivered a fragmented overview of DPPs in a few socio-spatial contexts and failed to take stock of the rise of DPPs. This article aims to provide a more comprehensive picture of the availability and functionalities of DPPs. Through a systematic
review, 113 active DPPs have been identified, analysed, and classified within a citizen-government relationship typology. Almost a quarter of these DPPs demonstrate a realistic potential for online and offline co-production between governments and citizens. The article critically analyses the characteristics of these DPPs and explores their real-world applications in urban development. The
article concludes with directions for further research.
Beyond technology
Identifying local government challenges for using digital platforms for citizen engagement
Previous research has highlighted that there is a lack of advanced technological solutions able to foster government-citizens collaboration. We argue that many examples of digital participatory platforms are already available and also ready to use for governments and citizens. Hence, causes for ineffective citizen engagement and collaboration with local government should not be sought in the lack of advanced technology. Thus, we focus on the issues and challenges that local governments face in fostering online and offline citizen engagement. We also provide a classification of challenges into six categories as a prerequisite to identifying actions and solutions for local governments
...
Previous research has highlighted that there is a lack of advanced technological solutions able to foster government-citizens collaboration. We argue that many examples of digital participatory platforms are already available and also ready to use for governments and citizens. Hence, causes for ineffective citizen engagement and collaboration with local government should not be sought in the lack of advanced technology. Thus, we focus on the issues and challenges that local governments face in fostering online and offline citizen engagement. We also provide a classification of challenges into six categories as a prerequisite to identifying actions and solutions for local governments
Smart governance in the context of smart cities
A literature review
This literature review has focused on smart governance as an emerging domain of study that attracts significant scientific and policy attention. More specifically, this paper aims to provide more insight in the definitions of and relationships between smart governance and concepts such as smart and electronic government, in the context of smart cities. The literature review shows that smart government can be considered as a basis for developing smart governance, through the application of emergent information and communication technologies (ICT) for governing. Smart governance as the intelligent use of ICT to improve decision-making through better collaboration among different stakeholders, including government and citizens, can be strongly related to government approaches. In this case ICT-based tools, such as social media, and openness can be factors that increase citizen engagement and support the development of new governance models for smart government. Smart governance may also have an important role in smart city initiatives, which require complex interactions between governments, citizens and other stakeholders. Based on the literature review, this paper coins a definition of ‘smart city governance’ and contributes to developing a framework for building new, smart governance models addressing the challenges of the digital society, collaborative governance, information sharing, citizen engagement, transparency and openness.
...
This literature review has focused on smart governance as an emerging domain of study that attracts significant scientific and policy attention. More specifically, this paper aims to provide more insight in the definitions of and relationships between smart governance and concepts such as smart and electronic government, in the context of smart cities. The literature review shows that smart government can be considered as a basis for developing smart governance, through the application of emergent information and communication technologies (ICT) for governing. Smart governance as the intelligent use of ICT to improve decision-making through better collaboration among different stakeholders, including government and citizens, can be strongly related to government approaches. In this case ICT-based tools, such as social media, and openness can be factors that increase citizen engagement and support the development of new governance models for smart government. Smart governance may also have an important role in smart city initiatives, which require complex interactions between governments, citizens and other stakeholders. Based on the literature review, this paper coins a definition of ‘smart city governance’ and contributes to developing a framework for building new, smart governance models addressing the challenges of the digital society, collaborative governance, information sharing, citizen engagement, transparency and openness.
L’esperienza dell’Italian Journal of Planning Practice (IJPP) (http://www.ijpp.it/index.php/it) nasce nel 2010 da un’iniziativa dei direttori fondatori Enzo Falco e Paolo Scattoni. Sebbene inizialmente maturi in ambito “Sapienza” Università di Roma, sin dall’inizio si è configurata come un’iniziativa indipendente da soggetti istituzionali e accademici e tale è rimasta nel tempo. IJPP è una rivista online open access, ad accesso libero e gratuito, che pubblica articoli in lingua inglese con cadenza annuale soggetti a un rigoroso processo di double-blind peer review da parte di qualificati ricercatori .
...
L’esperienza dell’Italian Journal of Planning Practice (IJPP) (http://www.ijpp.it/index.php/it) nasce nel 2010 da un’iniziativa dei direttori fondatori Enzo Falco e Paolo Scattoni. Sebbene inizialmente maturi in ambito “Sapienza” Università di Roma, sin dall’inizio si è configurata come un’iniziativa indipendente da soggetti istituzionali e accademici e tale è rimasta nel tempo. IJPP è una rivista online open access, ad accesso libero e gratuito, che pubblica articoli in lingua inglese con cadenza annuale soggetti a un rigoroso processo di double-blind peer review da parte di qualificati ricercatori .
Land Value Recapture in Italy
A Detailed History, TDR Practices and Case Studies
Land value recapture has always been a controversial subject. In many countries there have been and there are different experiences that deal with the common objective of sharing with the wider community the benefits that derive from the development of land. Different approaches are the consequence of diverse private property regimes, planning legislations and histories of land ownership. However different the approach, the objective remains unchanged and prompts new research and practices. Approaches vary from the imposition of taxes on the increase in the value of land to compulsory acquisition at existing use value, transfer of development rights involving case-by-case negotiation, and in-kind contributions.
The importance of capturing at least a part of the increase in the value of land, also known as betterment value, has been discussed within planning literature with examples from all across the world (Alterman, 2010). Several expressions exist within the literature to refer to the increase in the value of land caused by government action. Betterment value, planning gain, windfall gain, unearned increment are some of the various terms used for expressing the same meaning (Bowers, 1992; Healey et al., 1995).
The issue that underpins the need to recover part of increases in land value has to do with the necessary condition to make developers and landowners contribute to the construction of the public parts of the city and share with the wider community part of the unearned increment which has accrued to them. Hans Bernoulli (1946) in his major volume “Die Stadt und ihr Boden - Towns and the Land” pointed out the importance of public ownership of land for the implementation of plans and generally for the realisation of a good land policy.
In the preface to the Italian translation of Bernoulli’s work, Luigi Dodi (1951) wrote: “the awkward question of urban land [...] is at the basis of nearly all of the current planning issues and [...] affects the possibility of bringing about the ideal city”. Further, Bernoulli wrote: “whoever talks or writes about Planning often easily skips this prejudicial problem and prefers looking at the most attractive part of urban design.”
A short definition of betterment is thus deemed as essential for the purpose of this work and would help understand the differences that exist between betterment value and the broader concept of urban rent. The Uthwatt Committee report (1942 para. 260) defined betterment as: “any increase in the value of land (including the buildings thereon) arising from central or local government action, whether positive e.g. by the execution of public works or improvement, or negative, e.g. by the imposition of restrictions on other land.”
For the purpose of this work, betterment value can be described as the increase in the value of land that is determined by changes in the planning regime. This means that it is concerned with the rise in the value of land caused by the granting of planning permission for a higher value use (Healey et al., 1995). Thus, the focus is on betterment produced by the planning activity and decisions and specifically by the granting of planning permission. Other forms of betterment deriving for example from infrastructure improvements, provision of new services and all the other factors which determine the value of a piece of land (e.g. accessibility) are not taken into consideration in this work.
To express how, in general, the concept of the increase in the value of land is perceived and its impact on the society as a whole it may be useful to report the words of Campos Venuti in Oliva (2010a:15) who stated: “land rent represents the main pathological factor of the real estate regime and it is responsible for all its perverse effects on cities, (...) the environment and landscape.” These effects involve: speculation; overdevelopment and reduction of resources available for other kind of investments in other sectors of the economy; the need to provide for more infrastructure in general (e.g. roads, trains, buses and public services and facilities); increased stresses on individuals who have to travel longer to and from work, and so on.
Campos Venuti referred to the increase in land value in general, however this increase is produced, and does not distinguish between the causes which determine it. Saraceno, as reported in Oliva (2010a: 21), describes the phenomenon very clearly: :
“there is no doubt (...) that landowners who benefit from the increase in the value of land cannot be considered among the production factors; the attribution of such increment to landowners would result in taking away a share of national income from the categories which produced it.” Such increments accrued to landowners are not the fruit of personal investment or generally the consequence of individual efforts nor the result of some specific public investment. It is more the product of the expansion of the city at its edges and of an increase in economic activity, and it is the existence of the society itself, organised as a community, which is the reason why permissions for development projects and development control are needed. If a community is not able to capture betterment it may overall under-invest in new infrastructure or even decide to refuse granting planning permission which would result in the entire society being worse off (Bowers, 1992).
Thus, the importance of collecting betterment derives from ethical as well as economic and practical issues. It is argued that the community which has produced betterment can justly claim it back; and a developer who has benefited from the granting of planning permission or from some form of public improvement and investment should be taxed in order to contribute to the costs borne by the local authority, which represents the community interest (Camagni, year unknown). Nevertheless, the distinction between betterment value due to the granting of planning permission and betterment as resulting from some public investment, e.g. a transport infrastructure or a school, is not at all straightforward. This makes it rather complex to collect betterment resulting from planning permission only.
...
Land value recapture has always been a controversial subject. In many countries there have been and there are different experiences that deal with the common objective of sharing with the wider community the benefits that derive from the development of land. Different approaches are the consequence of diverse private property regimes, planning legislations and histories of land ownership. However different the approach, the objective remains unchanged and prompts new research and practices. Approaches vary from the imposition of taxes on the increase in the value of land to compulsory acquisition at existing use value, transfer of development rights involving case-by-case negotiation, and in-kind contributions.
The importance of capturing at least a part of the increase in the value of land, also known as betterment value, has been discussed within planning literature with examples from all across the world (Alterman, 2010). Several expressions exist within the literature to refer to the increase in the value of land caused by government action. Betterment value, planning gain, windfall gain, unearned increment are some of the various terms used for expressing the same meaning (Bowers, 1992; Healey et al., 1995).
The issue that underpins the need to recover part of increases in land value has to do with the necessary condition to make developers and landowners contribute to the construction of the public parts of the city and share with the wider community part of the unearned increment which has accrued to them. Hans Bernoulli (1946) in his major volume “Die Stadt und ihr Boden - Towns and the Land” pointed out the importance of public ownership of land for the implementation of plans and generally for the realisation of a good land policy.
In the preface to the Italian translation of Bernoulli’s work, Luigi Dodi (1951) wrote: “the awkward question of urban land [...] is at the basis of nearly all of the current planning issues and [...] affects the possibility of bringing about the ideal city”. Further, Bernoulli wrote: “whoever talks or writes about Planning often easily skips this prejudicial problem and prefers looking at the most attractive part of urban design.”
A short definition of betterment is thus deemed as essential for the purpose of this work and would help understand the differences that exist between betterment value and the broader concept of urban rent. The Uthwatt Committee report (1942 para. 260) defined betterment as: “any increase in the value of land (including the buildings thereon) arising from central or local government action, whether positive e.g. by the execution of public works or improvement, or negative, e.g. by the imposition of restrictions on other land.”
For the purpose of this work, betterment value can be described as the increase in the value of land that is determined by changes in the planning regime. This means that it is concerned with the rise in the value of land caused by the granting of planning permission for a higher value use (Healey et al., 1995). Thus, the focus is on betterment produced by the planning activity and decisions and specifically by the granting of planning permission. Other forms of betterment deriving for example from infrastructure improvements, provision of new services and all the other factors which determine the value of a piece of land (e.g. accessibility) are not taken into consideration in this work.
To express how, in general, the concept of the increase in the value of land is perceived and its impact on the society as a whole it may be useful to report the words of Campos Venuti in Oliva (2010a:15) who stated: “land rent represents the main pathological factor of the real estate regime and it is responsible for all its perverse effects on cities, (...) the environment and landscape.” These effects involve: speculation; overdevelopment and reduction of resources available for other kind of investments in other sectors of the economy; the need to provide for more infrastructure in general (e.g. roads, trains, buses and public services and facilities); increased stresses on individuals who have to travel longer to and from work, and so on.
Campos Venuti referred to the increase in land value in general, however this increase is produced, and does not distinguish between the causes which determine it. Saraceno, as reported in Oliva (2010a: 21), describes the phenomenon very clearly: :
“there is no doubt (...) that landowners who benefit from the increase in the value of land cannot be considered among the production factors; the attribution of such increment to landowners would result in taking away a share of national income from the categories which produced it.” Such increments accrued to landowners are not the fruit of personal investment or generally the consequence of individual efforts nor the result of some specific public investment. It is more the product of the expansion of the city at its edges and of an increase in economic activity, and it is the existence of the society itself, organised as a community, which is the reason why permissions for development projects and development control are needed. If a community is not able to capture betterment it may overall under-invest in new infrastructure or even decide to refuse granting planning permission which would result in the entire society being worse off (Bowers, 1992).
Thus, the importance of collecting betterment derives from ethical as well as economic and practical issues. It is argued that the community which has produced betterment can justly claim it back; and a developer who has benefited from the granting of planning permission or from some form of public improvement and investment should be taxed in order to contribute to the costs borne by the local authority, which represents the community interest (Camagni, year unknown). Nevertheless, the distinction between betterment value due to the granting of planning permission and betterment as resulting from some public investment, e.g. a transport infrastructure or a school, is not at all straightforward. This makes it rather complex to collect betterment resulting from planning permission only.
Smart City L’Aquila
An Application of the “Infostructure” Approach to Public Urban Mobility in a Post-Disaster Context
Journal article
(2017)
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Enzo Falco, Ivano Malavolta, Adam Radzimski, Stefano Ruberto, Ludovico Iovino, Francesco Gallo
Ever since the earthquake of April 6, 2009 hit the city of L’Aquila, Italy, the city has been facing major challenges in terms of social, physical, and economic reconstruction. The system of public urban mobility, the bus network, is no exception with its old bus fleet, non-user-friendly information, and poor scheduling. This paper argues that the public transportation system of L’Aquila could be improved towards smart mobility models without large infrastructure investment by leveraging the “infostructure” approach, digital technologies, open data, and open source software. This work presents the digitization and geo-referencing procedure, software architecture, and the web and mobile apps that have been developed to improve the information flow available to citizens and to increase the user-friendliness of the transportation system. Future research will seek to make use of the data and develop applications to perform a public transport accessibility analysis of major points of interest throughout the city.
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Ever since the earthquake of April 6, 2009 hit the city of L’Aquila, Italy, the city has been facing major challenges in terms of social, physical, and economic reconstruction. The system of public urban mobility, the bus network, is no exception with its old bus fleet, non-user-friendly information, and poor scheduling. This paper argues that the public transportation system of L’Aquila could be improved towards smart mobility models without large infrastructure investment by leveraging the “infostructure” approach, digital technologies, open data, and open source software. This work presents the digitization and geo-referencing procedure, software architecture, and the web and mobile apps that have been developed to improve the information flow available to citizens and to increase the user-friendliness of the transportation system. Future research will seek to make use of the data and develop applications to perform a public transport accessibility analysis of major points of interest throughout the city.
Protection of coastal areas in Italy
Where do national landscape and urban planning legislation fail?
Italian coastal areas have been subject to strong anthropogenic pressure and urbanization processes over the past 60 years. Urbanization of the protected 300-m strip from shoreline has reached levels of over fifty per cent in some parts of the country. This article, by building on previous quantitative analyses and by providing some more quantitative data on the urbanization processes of coastal land at the provincial level, seeks to understand whether a con-cause that has led to a considerable urbanisation process is to be found in the way national landscape legislation has been designed, in its relationship with urban planning, and in the institutional and administrative fragmentation that characterise the management of coastal areas in Italy. After analysing landscape legislation and assessing its relationship with urban planning functions, following an approach based on concept of nomotropism the article highlights, for Italy as a whole, that national landscape legislation while seeking to protect and safeguard coastal areas paved the way for increased urbanization and development. Drawing on regional data on illegal development, the concept of nomotropism is also used to emphasise the impact that building amnesty laws have had on the practice of illegal development so contributing to increased urbanization processes.
...
Italian coastal areas have been subject to strong anthropogenic pressure and urbanization processes over the past 60 years. Urbanization of the protected 300-m strip from shoreline has reached levels of over fifty per cent in some parts of the country. This article, by building on previous quantitative analyses and by providing some more quantitative data on the urbanization processes of coastal land at the provincial level, seeks to understand whether a con-cause that has led to a considerable urbanisation process is to be found in the way national landscape legislation has been designed, in its relationship with urban planning, and in the institutional and administrative fragmentation that characterise the management of coastal areas in Italy. After analysing landscape legislation and assessing its relationship with urban planning functions, following an approach based on concept of nomotropism the article highlights, for Italy as a whole, that national landscape legislation while seeking to protect and safeguard coastal areas paved the way for increased urbanization and development. Drawing on regional data on illegal development, the concept of nomotropism is also used to emphasise the impact that building amnesty laws have had on the practice of illegal development so contributing to increased urbanization processes.
l recupero della rendita immobiliare tra strumenti fiscali, oneri, e accordi negoziali
Quale futuro per l’Italia?
Starting from sharing the needs of including the citizens inside formation processes of the public choices, the article tries to present the use of open source software in order to facilitate the inclusion. After a theoretic discussion of the e-planning and e-participation, some software of collaborative mapping and Public Participation GIS have been presented, blogs, social media, supporting systems to decisions and analysis, spatial simulation that meet the necessities of being integrated in a process plan structured in the following phases: perception of the problem and necessity of an action, formulation and discussion of the alternatives; choice.
...
Starting from sharing the needs of including the citizens inside formation processes of the public choices, the article tries to present the use of open source software in order to facilitate the inclusion. After a theoretic discussion of the e-planning and e-participation, some software of collaborative mapping and Public Participation GIS have been presented, blogs, social media, supporting systems to decisions and analysis, spatial simulation that meet the necessities of being integrated in a process plan structured in the following phases: perception of the problem and necessity of an action, formulation and discussion of the alternatives; choice.