The Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) is an example of a complex dynamic socio-hydrological system in which societies and hydrology interact and co-evolve. The dominant engineering approach in the VMD has enhanced the dynamics of society and hydrology. This study looks at the implications of socio-hydrological dynamics in the coastal VMD where saline water is controlled by various infrastructures. In the first phase, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were used to explore socio-hydrological dynamics in the study area. The results show divergence in livelihood strategies inside the freshwater-projected area, shaping a heterogeneous agricultural landscape of fresh- and brackish-water livelihoods manifested by four socio-hydrological groups. Next, the Motivation and Ability (MOTA) framework and household surveys were used to assess the adaptability in the agricultural development pathway advocated by the freshwater policy. The result revealed differentiations among these socio-hydrological groups. The findings suggest other practices may be required to help the area navigate towards future adaptations to socio-hydrological changes.

The Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) is one of the most examined deltas in the world given its dynamics, complexity, and vulnerability. In the past decades, the VMD has changed rapidly, especially the land use in relation with the socioeconomic development. National policy has profoundly influenced these changes and the changes have significantly affected local livelihoods. However, these changes are not well reported systematically. In this study, we investigate land-use changes based on institutional analyses across multiple scales, that is, from national, provincial, to local livelihood based on institutional and sustainability analysis. The results show a strong relationship between legal settings over the last 30 years on land use and livelihood transitions. In addition, the constraints of implementing national legal frameworks at provincial level in practice were identified including effects to local livelihoods. We offer some recommendations for sustainable livelihoods in the VMD, with a focus on increasing socioecological resilience.

Strategic delta planning focuses on strategic, long-term choices to stimulate sustainable development in deltas. Strategic delta plans outline a long-term vision to be embedded into the plans and activities of government agencies and semi-public actors at multiple levels. This implies a form of coordinated, yet decentralized, implementation. Although, its importance is widely acknowledged, there are few analytical approaches to assess the feasibility and possible bottlenecks of such implementation processes. This article applies a motivation and ability (MOTA) framework to assess the implementation feasibility of the Mekong Delta Plan in Ben Tre province, Vietnam. The results reveal diverging motivations and a perceived lack of ability among government actors at local and regional level. When not well-managed, this could hamper the translation of the strategic goals and visions into local and regional actions. This suggests the usefulness of the MOTA framework as a tool to help manage implementation processes for strategic delta planning.

Sustainable livelihood development is an ongoing challenge worldwide, and has regained importance due to threats of water shortages and climate change. To cope with changing climatic, demographic and market conditions in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta (VMD) an agricultural transformation process has been suggested in the recent Mekong Delta Plan. This agricultural transformation process requires the implementation of alternative livelihood models. The majority of current agricultural livelihood models in the VMD have been introduced by the government in a top-down manner. In this study, we applied a bottom-up approach to understand the motivations and abilities of local farmers to adopt alternative livelihood models. It is based on the MOTA methodological framework, which is further tested with the use of multivariate analyses. The study was conducted in Ben Tre coastal province. Results showed that farmers’ motivations and abilities to apply alternative models vary substantially among different groups, driven by their perceptions on triggers and opportunities. Acknowledging this diversity is essential to the development of agricultural transformation plans. Furthermore, based on the analysis, a projection of the precise support that communities need to supplement their knowledge, skills and financial capacities, as well as interventions to reduce the risks of new livelihood models, is given.

In this review, we take stock of 10 research articles that cover strategic delta planning processes in Asia, Europe, and the US. We test working hypotheses about consent, innovations, actor coalitions, and planning tools in different phases. We posit that strategic delta planning is a deliberate effort to influence delta developments, wherein wishful thinking on how a delta could develop is repeatedly confronted with vested practices and interests. These confrontations produce expected (e.g., institutional embedment, changing people’s minds) and unexpected changes (e.g., actors suddenly consenting or stepping out). Strategic delta planning is therefore not only an ambitious planning process, it is also highly uncertain, as consent on strategic directions has to be renegotiated across phases and arenas. Recommendations for practice are therefore highlighted that cover vocabulary, persuasiveness and tools. Further research is proposed to study the vagaries of strategic delta plans in urbanising deltas.

The Vietnamese Mekong Delta has been recognized as a hotspot of vulnerability to climate change and its effects. Under some climate change projections, the delta could face 40% inundation by the end of the century, presenting serious challenges to the sustainability of agricultural systems in the delta and suggesting the need for transformations to more climate-resilient livelihood models. The Vietnamese government acknowledges these threats and has initiated a policy process to offer solutions; the Mekong Delta Plan. A central goal for the coastal region is ‘adaptation to salinity’. Adaptation to salinity does not only require an adjustment in the hydrological setting, but includes changes in livelihood practices as well. Therefore, this study aimed to add a bottom-up perspective to inform planning practices based on a behavioural perspective, centralizing the motivations and abilities of actors to act (MOTA). In this this study, we conducted a MOTA assessment at two levels; an assessment of motivations and abilities at farm level and an assessment of local government actors to adapt their planning and implementation practices. The empirical work was conducted in coastal Ben Tre province and included 100 structured interviews of farmer households; three focus groups with a total of 27 farmers; and semi-structured interviews with 28 representatives of provincial and district level government agencies. The analysis showed that the local setting is a very pluralistic one; the abilities to change differed greatly among the communes included in the analysis. The analysis discovered the underlying factors behind farmers’ self-perceived motivation and abilities. Furthermore, the analysis shows that each of the communes has its own preferred livelihood model; from the safe rice model in Phu Ngai to oyster, mushroom and Lingzhi in Vinh Hoa. These differences can partly be explained by the physical (hydrological) conditions, such as the availability of fresh water. However, there are also differences that cannot be explained by the physical conditions, such as the (un)ability of farmers to cooperate in farmer cooperatives or the difference in motivation to change. The analysis of the governance setting shows that salinity intrusion is primarily perceived as a threat. Coping with salinity is therefore not an opportunity for livelihood transformations, but salinity levels should be controlled and monitored. There is a high motivation to change, but this is a change towards ‘controlling salinity’ rather than ‘adapting to salinity’. An additional threat is the (uncontrolled) shift towards brackish water aquaculture. Not only do these farms interfere in the fresh water system, but availability of fresh water stays important, for drinking water supply, but also to maintain the right levels of brackish water. The ability assessment shows a low ability to change for all actors. The actors state to a lack of finances, techniques, and institutional abilities to improve current situation. This study also showed that with the MOTA bottom – up approach, the social adoptability i.e. whether or not farmers adopt plans, should be appropriately supported by governments and other organizations given their limited abilities.

Socio-hydrology studies the interactions in coupled human-water systems. So far, the use of dynamic models that capture the direct feedback between societal and hydrological systems has been dominant. What has not yet been included with any particular emphasis, is the policy or management layer, which is a central element in for instance integrated water resources management (IWRM) or adaptive delta management (ADM). Studying the direct interactions between human-water systems generates knowledges that eventually helps influence these interactions in ways that may ensure better outcomes – for society and for the health and sustainability of water systems. This influence sometimes occurs through spontaneous emergence, uncoordinated by societal agents – private sector, citizens, consumers, water users. However, the term ‘management’ in IWRM and ADM also implies an additional coordinated attempt through various public actors. This contribution is a call to include the policy and management dimension more prominently into the research focus of the socio-hydrology field, and offers first conceptual variables that should be considered in attempts to include this policy or management layer in socio-hydrology models. This is done by drawing on existing frameworks to study policy processes throughout both planning and implementation phases. These include frameworks such as the advocacy coalition framework, collective learning and policy arrangements, which all emphasis longer-term dynamics and feedbacks between actor coalitions in strategic planning and implementation processes. A case about longter-term dynamics in the management of the Haringvliet in the Netherlands is used to illustrate the paper.