Despite its critical role in maintaining container availability, inland empty container repositioning (ECR) is often modelled using stylised assumptions that abstract from the economic and contractual mechanisms driving decisions in practice. This paper empirically evaluates a realistic, multi-period inland ECR decision-support model that explicitly incorporates heterogeneous operators, minimum TEU-equivalent pricing, third-party handling fees, and port evacuation constraints.

Using real operational data, the model is assessed through a historical comparison with manual planning, operational testing in a weekly planning environment, and a port congestion scenario. The results show that cost reductions are achieved not by suppressing repositioning activity, but by improving coordination, timing, and consolidation across depots and operators.

Operational testing confirms that the model supports planner judgement by making cost–service trade-offs transparent and actionable. The congestion scenario further demonstrates how port constraints shift cost pressure from transport to inland storage, revealing vulnerabilities that are obscured by aggregate performance indicators.

Overall, the findings highlight the importance of economic realism for meaningful evaluation of inland ECR efficiency and resilience. ... Read more