Wave nonlinearity plays a critical role in modulating energy dissipation and sediment transport in vegetated coastal zones, influencing shoreline stability and ecosystem-based defenses. This study analyzes 45 d of wave observations from the Yangtze Estuary, including data collected during Typhoon Khanun, to investigate its spatial variability and underlying mechanisms of wave nonlinearity across a mudflat–vegetation transect. Wave skewness and asymmetry varied within tidal cycles, increasing at low tide and decreasing at high tide. During typhoon conditions, nonlinearity intensified significantly, with skewness increasing by up to 346% and asymmetry shifting toward more forward-leaning waveforms, both closely linked to elevated Ursell numbers. Bispectral analysis at five stations across the transect revealed distinct energy transfer mechanisms: sum interactions dominated over mudflats, whereas difference interactions prevailed within vegetated zones, indicating vegetation-induced modification of nonlinear wave dynamics. Further analysis shows that shoaling and vegetation exerted opposing influences, amplifying and damping wave nonlinearity, respectively. Empirical formulas proposed by Zhao et al. (Coastal Engineering 2024; 192:104543) from laboratory data were evaluated against the field data, demonstrating reasonable performance under extreme conditions. These findings improve mechanistic understanding of wave–vegetation interactions and support the development of nature-based strategies for coastal resilience and sediment management.

Tidal flats are critical coastal ecosystems, with their geomorphic characteristics traditionally understood to be primarily influenced by tidal, wave, and storm forces. This study investigates the impact of rainfall on the morphodynamics of upper tidal flats by combining hydrodynamic-sediment data, meteorological rainfall records, and video monitoring at the Chongming Dongtan tidal flat in the Yangtze River Estuary, China. We show that rainfall significantly increases suspended sediment transport and accelerates tidal channel elongation. Notably, rainfall events—though occurring during only 25 % of observed tidal inundation periods—accounted for 62 % of cumulative net sediment transport. This disproportionate efficiency compared to tidal forcing stems from the rainfall-induced hydraulic connectivity between expansive supratidal areas and tidal channels, where concentrated runoff convergence intensifies scour dynamics. These findings challenge the traditional view of tidal flat dynamics, suggesting that rainfall is a more influential driver of morphodynamic change than previously recognized.

Strong hydrodynamic forces generated by storms are key in shaping coastal tidal flats. Most tidal flats achieve equilibrium by adapting to hydrodynamic conditions and sediment inputs. However, high-energy wave activity during storms disrupts this equilibrium, causing rapid and significant changes, particularly in tidal flats, especially in microtidal flats, which are characterized by low tidal ranges. In this study, we conducted an 11-d field campaign on a microtidal flat in the Yellow River Delta (YRD), capturing data during both stormy and calm weather conditions. We measured tidal currents, wave activity, suspended sediment concentrations and sediment grain sizes. The results demonstrated that the tidal flat maintained equilibrium under calm conditions, with minimal fluctuations in bed level (within ±2 mm). Contrastingly, severe erosion and sediment removal during the storm significantly altered the equilibrium of the area. The storm-induced high shear stresses, ranging from 1.02 to 1.48 N/m ², along with alongshore sediment transport, resulted in an elevation change of −10 mm. Furthermore, the subsequent bed level recovery was minimal and insufficient to offset the erosion. Compared to that of the mesotidal and macrotidal flats, post-storm recovery on microtidal flats was limited due to shorter inundation periods and weaker hydrodynamic forces. Therefore, frequent storms may lead to continuous shoreline retreat on microtidal coasts. Conclusively, the present findings underscore the significant impact of storm-induced erosion on the evolutionary processes of microtidal flats and suggest that greater attention should be given to protecting these areas during storms in the Yellow River Delta. The insights can guide the development of more effective coastal protection strategies, highlighting the need for enhanced measures to mitigate erosion and promote resilience in microtidal regions.