Tidal inlets are a common feature along the world’s coastline. Inlet-adjacent coastlines have for millennia supported communities and livelihoods, and therefore, projected climate change driven variations in catchment-estuary-coast (CEC) system drivers (e.g., sea-level rise (SLR)) are likely to lead to substantial socio-economic impacts. One important SLR-driven process that affects inlet-adjacent shoreline change is basin-infilling (i.e., sediment import to the estuary from the coast to satisfy the SLR-driven increase of estuarine accommodation space). Due to the slow morphological response to hydrodynamic forcing, however, there is a time lag between basin infilling and SLR, which, in numerical models that simulate century-scale evolution of CEC systems, is represented by a basin infilling lag factor (M). To date, an indicative M value has only been derived for small tidal inlet systems (M ~0.5), and due to the lack of M estimates for larger systems, studies have been using M ~0.5 indiscriminately. Here, for the first time, we derive indicative M values for small, medium, and large tidal inlet systems (M ~0.5, ~0.25 and ~0.15 respectively) via analytical considerations. Subsequently, to investigate the consequences of using sub-optimal M values on twenty-first century projections of inlet-adjacent shoreline change, we apply a probabilistic, reduced complexity model (G-SMIC), under four IPCC AR6 climate scenarios, to three CEC systems representing small, medium and large systems. Results show that, in general, shoreline change projections are substantially lower(higher) when M values smaller(larger) than the indicative M for a given system are used. When smaller-than-optimal M values (0.25 and 0.15) are used for the small tidal inlet, both mid- and end-century shoreline retreats are under-estimated by 50–75% (across the four climate scenarios), relative to projections obtained with the optimal M value. For the medium-sized inlet, shoreline retreats for both future periods are over-estimated by ~100% with the larger-than-optimal M value of 0.5, while they are under-estimated by ~40–75% (across climate scenarios) with the smaller-than-optimal M value of 0.15. When the two higher-than-optimal M values (0.25 and 0.5) are used for the large tidal inlet system, shoreline retreat is over-estimated by ~ 65–240% (across climate scenarios) for both future periods. In terms of absolute values, these under/over-estimations increase in time and with the severity of emission scenario.

Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) are increasingly being used in various scientific disciplines. However, dealing with non-stationary physical processes remains a significant challenge in such models, whereas fluid motions are typically non-stationary. In this study, a PINN-based method was designed and optimized to solve non-stationary fluid dynamics with shallow water equations in a polar coordinate system (PINN-SWEP). It was developed and validated with a classic circular basin case that is well-documented in scientific literature. In the validation case, the wind-induced water surface fluctuations are less than 1 cm, posing challenges in modeling. However, our PINN-SWEP model can accurately simulate such tiny water surface fluctuations and resolve complex fluid motions based on limited and sparse data. A boundary discontinuity problem associated with the use of a polar coordinate system is further discussed and improved, thereby enhancing the applicability of PINN in water research. The methodology can provide an alternative solution for numerical or analytical solutions with high accuracy.

Tidal flats and their associated sandbanks are dynamic environments crucial for ecological balance and biodiversity. Monitoring their evolutionary history and topographic changes is important to better understand their dynamic mechanisms and predict their future status. Accurately mapping their evolution, however, remains challenging due to highly dynamic currents, suspended sediment variability, and unclear boundaries between land, tidal flats, and water. Traditional waterline methods struggle under these conditions. In this study, we propose an Object-Based Image Segmentation (OBIS) method, specifically designed for SAR images, to extract waterlines and distinguish tidal flats and shorelines from water bodies. This method integrates SAR polarimetric feature analysis to select high-quality images and employs partition processing to preserve local feature statistics. Using 199 Sentinel-1 GRD, 132 Radarsat-2 SLC, and 157 Landsat images, we analyzed coastal dynamics in the Dutch Wadden Sea from 1986 to 2020. Our DEMs, validated against LiDAR data (2016–2019) and 58 ground anchor measuring stations (2011–2020), achieved an accuracy of 10–30 cm. Results show that coastal tidal flats and sandbanks expanded at rates of 0.107–0.324 km2 yr−1 and 0.010–0.073 km2 yr−1, respectively, with a net intertidal volume increase of approximately 8.6×107m3. The generated DEMs provide valuable insights for sediment budget evaluation and hydrodynamic modeling, supporting scientific research and coastal management. The proposed OBIS-based framework demonstrates its effectiveness for mapping national-scale tidal flats and sandbanks dynamics.

A general increase in the bankfull width and depth is found in downstream reaches because of upstream damming, especially in the braided reach of the Lower Yellow River (LYR), but the magnitude of bank erosion and its relation with bed incision remain little explored. Here based on long-term measured cross-sectional profiles (1999–2020), a quantitative method is proposed to estimate the bank erosion volume in the braided reach of the Lower Yellow River, with the contribution of bank erosion to the channel scour volume further determined. A quantitative relation was developed and calibrated between bank erosion width and bed incision depth, using the sediment continuity equation and measured data. The results indicate that: (i) significant bank erosion and bed incision processes are prevalent in the braided reach and its sub-reaches, with the bankfull widths increasing by 317–511 m and the bankfull depths increasing by 1.9–2.4 m in these reaches after the operation of the Xiaolangdi (XLD) Reservoir in 1999. Bank erosion has been dominant over bank accretion at more than 71% of the sections in the braided reach, with the most active bank deformation detected in the middle sub-reach. (ii) The cumulative bank erosion volumes temporally increased and spatially decreased, with the value of 1.80×108 m3 in the upper sub-reach (R1), 1.52×108 m3 in the middle sub-reach (R2), 1.08×108 m3 in the lower sub-reach (R3), and 4.40×108 m3 in the whole braided reach during the period of 1999–2020. Bank erosion contributed 33% of the cumulative channel scour volume in the braided reach, with a close relation developed between cumulative bank erosion volume and the previous 5-year average incoming sediment coefficient during flood seasons. (iii) A close inverse relation exists between bank erosion and bed incision in the whole braided reach and its sub-reaches, with the coefficients of determination greater than 0.90, which indicated that bank erosion hindered the process of bed incision. If there was no bank erosion after 1999, the cumulative bed incision depth would increase by at least 0.7 m in each reach. Furthermore, a similar quantitative relation was also applied to calculate the cumulative bed incision depth and bank erosion width in the braided reach during the period of 1960–1964 (the first stage after operation of the Sanmenxia Reservoir). Quite high accuracy was achieved in this analysis, with the coefficient of determination being equal to 0.96.

Human interventions influence sediment dynamics, and understanding these mechanisms is essential for predicting short-term and long-term estuarine development. The Deep Channel Navigation Project (DCNP) in the Yangtze Estuary is such a large infrastructural intervention that substantially alters sediment exchanges between channels and shoals and may thereby influence this estuarine development. However, the effect of these constructions on channel-shoal sediment exchange is up to now poorly known. In this study, we use an extensive dataset collected both in channels and on shoals and a numerical model to clarify the exchange mechanisms driving sediment transport patterns in a strongly anthropogenically modified environment. The results indicate that the stepwise construction of hydraulic structures leads to gradual changes in sediment exchange. The first phase was characterized by partially blocked sediment exchange with northward sediment transport towards the main channel and to the northern flats (2002–2010). Next, a transition period was characterized by weaker horizontal sediment exchange and reduced sediment supply (2010–2016). Since 2016, more efficient structures blocking sediment exchange further hinder northward transport and promote deposition on the southern flats. These processes point to the important role of engineering works in strengthening the southward growth of the delta. Moreover, data analyses suggest that northward over-jetty flow during high water induces a net sediment flux towards the channel due to water level gradients. The residual flow controls the net sediment transport both in the longitudinal and lateral direction over the tidal flats. Therefore, a clockwise residual circulation cell forms in the channel-shoal system, contributing to the channel siltation. These findings shed important insights into the role of sediment exchange in channel siltation and large-scale hydrodynamic and delta development. Such knowledge is crucial for sustainable future management of delta distributaries.

Recent remote sensing analysis has revealed extensive loss of tidal flats, yet the mechanisms driving these large-scale changes remain unclear. Here we show the spatiotemporal variations of 2,538 tidal flat transects across China to elucidate how their morphological features vary with external factors, including suspended sediment concentration (SSC), tidal range, and wave height. We observe a correlation between flat width and SSC distribution, and between flat slope and tidal range. A nation-wide decline in flat width is observed together with SSC reduction between 2002 and 2016. Intriguingly, sediment-rich flats exhibit more rapid width losses if SSC reduces, but slower width gain if SSC increase compared to sediment-starved flats. These dynamics resemble stretched (sediment-rich) or compressed (sediment-starved) springs that tend to return to equilibrium, which can be explained by synthetic morphodynamic modeling. Similar patterns can be observed from Indonesia, the United States, and Australia, implying that the impact of sediment supply change is wide-spread and large-scale sediment allocation plan based on equilibrium concept can help preserving intertidal ecosystems.

Tidal flats are typically rich in fine-grained sediments, with tidal currents serving as the dominant hydrodynamic force. Sediment transport, mainly in the form of suspended load, is especially active in the mid- to low-tidal zones, where silt-rich sediments prevail. In these zones, variations in silt content significantly influence sediment suspension dynamics. To investigate the effect of silt content on the suspension behaviours of sand-silt mixtures under unidirectional flow, a series of experiments has been conducted in an annular flume. Sediment samples collected from silt-enriched tidal flats were remixed into seven types of sediment beds with the silt content ranging from 19 % to 79 %. Results indicate that under steady current conditions, the suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in sand-silt mixtures increased toward equilibrium. Sediment beds with 36 %–60 % silt content exhibited two-stage erosion behaviour, each marked by distinct characteristics. At low to moderate shear stress (0.18–0.74 Pa), smoother bed surfaces and hiding-exposure effects led to higher near-bed velocities and lower equilibrium SSCs. At higher shear stress levels (1.00–1.23 Pa), this behaviour shifted, with prolonged suspension development becoming the key feature. Based on the experimental findings, we further re-calibrated the equations predicting equilibrium SSC, which can be well described by a modified excess shear stress to the power of two. Subsequently, we investigated the boundary conditions that govern sediment suspension to model the observed suspension process. Building on the boundary condition prescribing a constant upward sediment flux, an asymptotic upward flux condition, which represents the delayed erosion response due to the resistance of silty bed structure, has been introduced and demonstrated as the most feasible. Furthermore, the development of SSC towards equilibrium was investigated. This process is well characterised by a time scale, which becomes notably larger for sediment beds with 36 %–60 % silt content at high velocity levels, reflecting their delayed response in suspension. These findings elucidate key mechanisms governing silt-dominated sediment erosion, enhancing predictive capabilities in modelling mixed sediment transport.

A series of laboratory experiments focused on the wind impact on the vertical turbulence structure in shallow water has been carried out. The turbulence characteristics in the mid-lower water column under relatively strong wave conditions are investigated. For different experimental conditions (i.e., waves only, wind only, combinations of wind and waves) in a wind-wave flume, the effects of wind and waves were investigated in detail by decomposing the total energy into different terms (i.e., wind-driven currents, wind waves, wind-induced turbulence). The results show that shallow water waves play a major role in transferring energy by non-zero wave-induced Reynolds stress (u˜w˜‾), turbulent diffusion (u^′w^′‾). The superimposed wind can further modify the energy transference due to its impact on wave asymmetry and skewness as well as through homogenizing the time-average velocity profiles. Subsequently, the impact of wind on turbulence structure was explored in detail. The most important finding is that the wind can directly influence water turbulent diffusion (u^′w^′‾) along with wave-induced turbulence. The vertical turbulence intensity (σ_w) is more sensitive to wind than the horizontal turbulence intensity (σ_u). Furthermore, the major way that wind affects water turbulence is by introducing nonlinear wind and wave interactions, which exhibit a maximum effect (∼60 % compared to the respective effect of wind and wave) at the edge of the bottom boundary layer. This study demonstrates that the wind can transfer momentum downward to mid-lower water columns even under strong waves in shallow waters, which differs from that in deep water systems.

Channel deepening and narrowing are common anthropogenic modifications in estuaries, but their combined effects on estuarine circulation, stratification, and sediment transport remain insufficiently understood. This study investigates these combined impacts in the North Passage of the Changjiang Estuary, where large-scale deepening and narrowing have significantly altered hydrodynamic and sediment processes. Our analysis demonstrates that channel deepening intensifies estuarine circulation by strengthening the landward near-bed flow, thereby enhancing sediment import. Contrary to initial expectations that narrowing would promote sediment flushing, our results indicate that narrowing increases stratification, steepens along-estuary salinity gradients, and suppresses vertical mixing. Intensified stratification further reinforces estuarine circulation, promoting sediment trapping at the saltwater intrusion limit. Additionally, enhanced tidal pumping driven by increased velocity and suspended sediment concentration gradients extends the estuarine turbidity maximum both upstream and downstream, a process often overlooked in engineered estuaries. These findings challenge conventional assumptions regarding the sedimentary impacts of narrowing, emphasizing instead its critical role in amplifying estuarine circulation and sediment trapping. Our results provide new insights into sediment dynamics in river-dominated estuaries, with significant implications for estuarine management, dredging operations, water quality control, and long-term morphological stability.

Decomposing turbulence from waves remains challenging due to frequency overlap and wave-turbulence interactions. Existing decomposition methods, e.g., moving average, energy spectrum analysis, and synchrosqueezed wavelet transform (SWT), produce inconsistent turbulence estimates. Here, we introduce a rotating-coordinate-based method (RoCoM), founded on two assumptions: (1) the energy spectrum in the cross-wave direction remains unaffected by wave orbital velocities, and (2) wave-wise and vertical turbulence spectra are linearly proportional to the cross-wave spectrum, with proportional constants derived from frequencies higher than the wave-dominated frequency range. Both assumptions were validated with observational data collected from the Changjiang Estuary. Comparative analyses using both in-situ observations and controlled laboratory experiments show RoCoM avoids the energy trough problem inherent in the moving average and SWT methods, yielding the most accurate power spectra and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) estimates. In-situ data reveal that the relative errors of RoCoM are approximately 16 % for total TKE and about 6 % for TKE within the wave-dominated frequency range. Laboratory experiments further confirm its superior accuracy, demonstrating relative errors of approximately 14 % for total TKE and about 7 % for wave-band TKE. RoCoM holds significant implications for marine material transport and coastal energy development by providing robust and precise turbulence and wave energy estimates. Nonetheless, its application is currently best suited for scenarios with predominant wave propagation from a single direction, while SWT remains advantageous in environments characterized by broader directional wave spreading.

Marsh creeks are perceived as important conduits for transporting water and sediment between mudflats and marshes. In order to advance the understanding of the transport mechanisms in creeks, the source and ultimate sink of sediment which moves between mudflats and marshes through creek channels need further investigation. Therefore, two field campaigns were conducted in two intertidal systems with varying sediment availability. The water depth, flow velocity, suspended sediment concentration, and bed level change were measured simultaneously in a marsh creek and on the adjacent mudflat in Chongming Island (China) and in Paulina Saltmarsh (the Netherlands). Paulina Saltmarsh is much smaller, more frequently flooded, and has lower sediment concentration than Chongming. These contrasting conditions allow for a comparison of transport mechanisms and functioning of the creek. Both systems first show that the high suspended sediment concentration (SSC) measured in marsh creeks is mainly the consequence of sediment advection rather than local erosion. In addition, erosion in marsh creeks is usually limited during ebb tides, reducing the export of sediment through these creeks. However, differences have been observed between two systems. The measured SSC was highly asymmetric between flood and ebb tides in Chongming. Large peaks in SSC during the flood period can be observed for most tidal cycles. The marsh creeks in Chongming therefore function as conduits for sediment import. Additionally, there are distinct overbank and underbank tides in Chongming. Sediment was trapped and retained in creeks during underbank tides, which can then be eroded and transported to the marsh during subsequent overbank tides. We also observed that mudflats in Chongming quickly recovered after erosion. These mechanisms have not been observed in Paulina Saltmarsh, where net sediment export via the marsh creek was observed due to a lack of abundant sediment in suspension during flood tides. Furthermore, the remaining bed surface of mudflats after an erosion event was stronger than before, limiting further erosion in Paulina Saltmarsh. These findings from the two systems indicate that the role of creeks in sediment import/export depends on the availability of sediment from mudflats, shedding light on nourishment strategies for salt marshes.

Water and mass transport in distributary channel networks play an important role in nourishing fluvial and coastal wetlands, and are largely determined by the morphological configurations of channel bifurcations. While the morphological equilibrium of a single channel bifurcation has been extensively studied, the equilibrium configurations of channel networks with connecting channels linking the bifurcating branches, that is, the “bifurcation-connecting channel” units that are commonly found in rivers, deltas and estuaries, remain elusive. In this simple yet representative channel network of the “bifurcation-connecting channel” unit, we observed through numerical simulations an oscillatory water partitioning under moderate Shields stress and channel aspect ratio, in addition to the steady-state solutions reported in previous studies. The oscillatory water partitioning indicates a newly discovered periodic solution, which is an emergent behavior under constant boundary conditions. We found that the periodic solution is primarily due to the dynamic interactions between bifurcation instability and water surface slope advantage in the two branches modulated by the reversable discharges through the connecting channel, under moderate Shields stress and channel aspect ratio. In such cases, the developed slope advantage in the subordinate branch can suppress the deepening of the dominant branch and eventually lead to the shifting of the dominant branch. In contrast, the channel network attains a steady-state solution when the slope advantage or the bifurcation instability is dominant with relatively low and high Shields stress (or channel aspect ratio). Our results improve the understanding on the evolution and restoration of channel networks under increasing human interventions in global deltas.

Future sediment transport from the North Sea coasts to the Dutch Wadden Sea for various future sea level scenarios has been studied because it influences the future sand nourishment demand for the maintenance of the coastline and because it determines bio-geomorphological development of the Wadden Sea. The present study focuses on two questions which have not yet been considered in the previous modelling studies using ASMITA: How will the transport develop around drowning of the intertidal flats in the Wadden Sea? How will tidal range change influence the future sediment exchange? By using SLR scenarios with faster acceleration and running the simulations for longer periods of time some inlets exhibited drowning, i.e., where the tidal flat volume vanishes. When drowning occurs, the sediment import rate approaches a maximum or a minimum, depending on the initial morphological state of the tidal inlet system. This maximum or minimum rate for a certain tidal inlet system depends on the SLR scenario. Theoretical analysis as well as modelling results show that tidal range change will influence the sediment import to the Wadden Sea. A tidal range increase will cause a decrease of the sediment demand in the Wadden Sea resulting into less sediment import to the Wadden Sea. It is thus important to study the tidal range development in the Wadden Sea by considering the interaction between SLR, tidal range change and morphological development in the system. It is further concluded that the empirical relation used in the previous studies is not representative of conditions in a tidal basin with fixed basin area, even though this relation has been derived from field observations in many tidal inlet systems worldwide. The equilibrium channel volume should be proportional to the tidal prism instead of to its 1.5^th power.

Storm surge barriers and closure dams influence estuarine morphology. Minimizing consequential ecological impacts requires a thorough understanding of the morphological adaptation mechanisms and associated time scales. Both are unraveled using three decades of morphological measurements on the adaptation of the Eastern Scheldt estuary (The Netherlands) to a storm surge barrier and closure dams. Both the storm surge barrier (through a decrease in cross-sectional area) and closure dams (inducing a reduction in surface area of the estuary) contributed to a reduction in tidal prism. As a smaller tidal prism implies a smaller equilibrium volume of the channels, the channels demand sediment to adjust. Consequently, by providing sediment to the channels, the intertidal flats erode. Erosion rates decreased while the sediment demand of the channels attenuated. This attenuation in sediment demand resulted mainly from tidal prism gains, caused by intertidal flat erosion and sea level rise. Erosion rates of the intertidal flats decreased further while they flattened to adapt to the reduced tidal velocities. Furthermore, storms caused erosion events, after which the long-term adaptation pace of intertidal flats suddenly reduced. Despite decreasing erosion, sea level rise enhances the drowning of intertidal flats in sediment-scarce estuarine systems, thereby pressuring these estuarine ecosystems and raising the need for mitigation measures.

The Changjiang Estuary and Hangzhou Bay system has experienced river damming and estuarine engineering in the last decades. However, few studies focused on the shifts in its sediment dynamics due to such human activities. In this study multi-decadal development of sediment dynamics in the transitional zone of the two large estuaries was analyzed, based on the synchronous hydrographic data in the winter of 2023, 2014 and 1983. The results revealed significant changes in regional hydrodynamics and suspended sediment transport, despite the continuous good correlations between the current velocity, suspended sediment concentration (SSC), water/sediment fluxes and tidal range. Specifically, the current velocity has been decreased by 8 - 21% after 2014, mainly due to the land reclamation (implemented around 2016) with several groins stretching into deep water and altering alongshore hydrodynamics. The SSC has decreased further by 29 - 38% in addition to the significant decrease during 1983 - 2014. The SSC changes are related to the combination of river damming which induced sediment load reduction and land reclamation which enclosed a large amount of sediment. Furthermore, the sediment transport from Changjiang Estuary to Hangzhou Bay decreased by 36% - 53%, explaining the observed bed erosion in the northern bay mouth in recent years. The findings are also relevant for studies on sediment dynamics in other large estuaries worldwide.

The world’s coasts and deltas are progressively threatened by climate change and human activities. The degree at which coastlines can adapt to these changes strongly depends on the sediment availability. The availability of muddy sediments is however poorly known. This study aims at developing a mud budget for the world’s largest system of uninterrupted tidal flats: the Wadden Sea. The resulting mud budget is nearly closed: ~ 12 million ton/year enters the system on its western end, ~ 1.5 million ton/year is added by local rivers, while ~ 12 million ton annually deposits or is extracted by anthropogenic activities. A mud deficit already exists in the downdrift areas, which will only become more pronounced with increased sea level rise rates. Mud is thus a finite resource similar to sand, and should be treated as such in sediment management strategies. Resolving future challenges will therefore require a cross-border perspective on sediment management.

Tidal flats are shrinking in extent globally. The dynamics of the response of estuarine tidal flats to global environmental changes remain unclear. Tidal-flat morphology is shaped by the interplay among wave and tidal forces, river discharge and sediment supply, and preservation of tidal flats requires a balance between erosional and depositional processes be maintained. Here we assess tidal-flat morphodynamic changes of 40 globally distributed estuaries with contrasting tidal amplitudes between 1986 and 2011 from analyses of 4,939 satellite images. We consider both vegetated and unvegetated intertidal areas. From comparisons with remote-sensing-derived turbidity estimates, we identify a critical turbidity threshold indicative of a minimum sediment supply along with the hydrodynamic forces, which is necessary to maintain tidal flats. Tidal flats in intertidal areas in estuaries with low turbidity face retreat, with the critical turbidity threshold increasing with increasing tidal amplitudes. By contrast, estuaries with high turbidity tend to exhibit laterally or vertically expanding tidal flats. However, despite estuaries with limited tidal ranges having relatively low turbidity thresholds, environmental or anthropogenic alterations can still adversely affect the morphology of tidal flats. Our findings demonstrate the need to consider sediment supply in integrated estuarine management strategies to maintain the ecological integrity and flood defence function of tidal flats.

Deltaic channel networks are important conduits for water and material supplies to the fluvial and coastal communities. However, increasing human interventions in river deltas have altered the topology and geometry of channel networks as well as their long-term evolution. While the morphological evolution of a single channel has received extensive studies, the system-wide morphological responses of channel networks to local disturbances remain largely unclear. Here we investigate the morphological responses of a bifurcating channel network subject to local disturbance of channel deepening due to dredging and sand mining through idealized simulations, and further compare the results with the reference scenarios of a single channel and theoretical analysis of the phase plane. The results show that the infilling of the local deepening is associated with the erosion of the entire branch, which also causes system-wide effects on the siltation of the other branch. The morphological responses of the bifurcating channel network consist of a relatively short stage for the infilling of the local deepening followed by a relatively long stage for recovering the equilibrium configuration of the river bifurcation. The system-wide effects of the local disturbance arise from the altered water surface slope and water partitioning downstream of the bifurcation due to the local deepening. Also, the prolonged recovery of the equilibrium configuration is consistent with theoretical analysis, which reveals a slow evolution of the bifurcation when approaching the equilibrium. Our results can help understand the long-term morphological responses of large-scale complex channel networks and inform water managements under increasing human interventions.

The survival of salt marshes, especially facing future sea-level rise, requires sediment supply. Sediment can be supplied to salt marshes via two routes: through marsh creeks and over marsh edges. However, the conditions of tides and waves that facilitate sediment import through these two routes remain unclear. To understand when and how sediment is imported into salt marshes, 2-month measurements were conducted to monitor tides, waves, and suspended sediment concentration (SSC) in Paulina Saltmarsh, a meso-macrotidal system. The results show that the marsh creek tends to import sediment during neap tides with waves. A tidal cycle with a small tidal range result in weaker flow in the marsh creek during ebb tides, reducing the export of sediment. Waves enhance sediment supply to the marsh creek by eroding mudflats. However, strong waves can directly resuspend sediment in marsh creeks during spring tides when the water level is above the marsh canopy, enhancing sediment export through creeks. Net sediment import over marsh edges requires the opposite tidal and wave conditions: spring tides with weak waves. Spring tides provide stronger hydrodynamics, facilitating sediment import over the marsh edge. Increased SSC during the ebb phase can occur with strong waves over the marsh edge, resulting in net sediment export. Therefore, the net import or export of sediment, through the creek and over the marsh edge, depends on the combination of tidal and wave conditions. These conditions can vary between estuaries and even individual marshes. Understanding these conditions is crucial for better management of salt marshes.

The Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt Delta is a low-lying delta in the Netherlands and Belgium. Its three major rivers, which drain a significant part of Northwest Europe, come together in a complex system of islands and channels. The delta is densely populated and of major economic interest to these countries. As most of it lies below mean sea level, it is heavily protected by major flood defence works. These strongly interfere, however, with the natural system, leading to a variety of undesired responses. The same goes for the numerous other human interventions with the system. Innovative methods are developed to mitigate or compensate these effects.