Water scarcity is a classic problem in the water management field. Water scarcity occurs when water is not renewed and cleaned at the same rate as it is used. Scholarship has indicated that water scarcity at a global level is increasing caused by climate change, and growing water demand. This growing water demand is primarily caused by increasing populations, domestic use, and economic activities. Additionally, the growing water demand is also caused by overuse, inefficiency in water use, weakness in the management of water use, and unsustainable water use behaviour.

Reducing water demand and enhancing water sustainability have emerged as priority measures on decision-makers’ agendas. An example is the indicator 6.4.1, “Increasing water-use efficiency (WUE)”, one of the Sustainable Development Goals formulated by the United Nations. These measures are on the water management programmes at a global level and also at regional and local levels. Currently, in urban and rural areas of countries such as Colombia, water scarcity is problematic due to extreme weather events such as the El Niño phenomena and urbanization. Under these circumstances, decision makers such as water managers and suppliers must simultaneously deal with guaranteed water supply and promote reduced water demand.

Decision makers typically focus on supply-side solutions, such as new water sources and construction of the reservoirs, and demand-side solutions, such as educational programs to raise awareness, the adoption of water-saving devices, economic incentives, and encouragement for the reduction in water use. To reduce water demand, these measures can mitigate drought conditions that occur more regularly and that do not necessarily translate into mid- to long-term water reductions. Besides conventional strategies, human decisions and actions are essential in reducing water use.

Behavioural factors such as attitudes and perceptions to assess relationships between human beings and water use are not usually integrated into supply and demand side solutions. For example, awareness initiatives often overlook why individuals do or do not adopt cost-effective water saving devices or why people take shorter showers or recycle greywater. Little progress has been made in understanding what drives the behaviour that can support policy to target and achieve urgent water savings.

Knowledge about water use behaviour in rural and peri-urban areas is still limited. Previous studies have identified a variety of contextual and psychological factors underlying water use behaviour at the household level. Most studies in this field have only been conducted in urban areas.

The research to date has focused on studying specific behavioural factors rather than integrated ones. Yet, few studies consider an integrated view of behavioural factors in shaping water use behaviour. We propose a systematic understanding of how contextual and psychological factors contribute to (in) efficient water use of water based on existing psychological approaches. This thesis aims to develop an integrated, systematic approach for identifying contextual and psychological factors underlying the (un) sustainable domestic use of water for applications in rural and peri-urban water supply systems.

We proposed a conceptual model which connects contextual and psychological factors to water use and represents relationships as supported by various environmental psychology approaches and theories, specifically the RANASt (risk, attitudes, norms, abilities, self-regulation and trust) approach and theory of values, beliefs and norms (VBN). The conceptual model has been applied to assess the relationship between contextual and psychological factors and to identify which factors underline the (un) sustainable domestic use of water. This conceptual model was then applied in a case study which included eight water supply systems, four in a peri-urban area of Cali and four in a rural area of Restrepo in the Valle del Cauca Department, situated in the western part of Colombia.

We collected self-reported data on water use activities through a cross-sectional survey, with a focus on domestic use from April to December 2021. A face-to-face survey was conducted with a random sample of 926 households which belong to eight water supply systems in rural villages and peri-urban zones in the Valle del Cauca Department in the western part of Colombia. We estimated water use efficiency based on survey data targeting the adoption of water saving devices (SP) and curtailment behaviour (SD), represented by shower duration. In this study we employed a quantitative methodology. Descriptive data were generated for all variables, and a multiple regression model was used to examine the relationship between water use and the contextual and psychological variables proposed by the RANASt and VBN theory.

Statistical analysis was used to identify various contextual and psychological factors underlying water use behaviour. A conceptual model integrating contextual and psychological factors, based on existing models and theories was proposed.

We found that the water supply was higher in rural areas than in peri-urban areas, even though the perceived water use was higher in peri-urban areas. Socioeconomic factors and proximity to capital cities can shed light on these results. Here, we show that the SP and SD variables exhibit relationships with contextual factors such as education level and location. The RANASt approach revealed that SD was related to attitudes, capabilities, and self-regulation. Meanwhile, SP was associated with risk, attitudes, social norms, and abilities. The relationship between environmental values, beliefs and norms, and SP, and SD was tested using VBN theory. The results of relationship analysis indicated that SP was connected to altruistic and egoistic values, as well as personal norms. Conversely, SD was linked to biospheric values and the moral duty to save water, which was recognized as a personal norm.

This study confirms that education level is associated with water use behaviour. However, the relationship between SD, SP, and location has not been previously described. The findings presented in this study suggest that policymakers often overlook the differences in organization and management between water supply systems far from urban areas and those nearer to urban areas when making decisions regarding water use reductions.

These results further support the idea that risk perception, attitudes about cost-benefit, abilities, altruistic, egoistic values, and social norms are connected with environmental behaviours. Consistent with the literature, which indicates that biospheric values might connect to environmental behaviours, this research found that these values connect with SD. This approach will be helpful in expanding our understanding of how the RANASt approach and VBN theory work help to examine water use behaviours.

Applying behavioural science to water use connects water management and the social sciences. This study’s methodology includes innovative and interdisciplinary methods, such as integrating engineering with the social sciences. To integrate both fields is essential to shift from unsustainable to sustainable water supply systems and to promote sustainable water practices. The findings will be of interest mainly to decision makers, such as water managers and academics, who want to include human behaviour components into water supply and demand side solutions.

Various areas around the globe that are facing overuse and highwater demand could also gain insights from this study by including human behaviour when examining water usage. The systematic approach used to examine contextual and psychological factors, and the conceptual model proposed in this study might be applied to other water supply systems elsewhere in the world.

Introduction:
Water scarcity is a significant global challenge that frequently manifests as inadequate water supply for domestic purposes. However, domestic water insecurity can occur even in regions where water is naturally abundant. Despite Colombia’s plentiful surface water resources, rural and peri-urban communities often experience limited access to water. Existing water supply systems are frequently susceptible to poor maintenance, particularly in remote areas where much of the infrastructure remains outdated. Consequently, water is often lost through leaks or unintentional non-domestic use. Although a regulatory framework for water usage exists, it does not consistently translate into effective implementation.

Methodology:
Based on an extensive survey of approximately 1000 households in four rural and four peri-urban communities in the Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, we identified the factors underlying inefficient water supply and use. Perceived water use at the household level, based on self-reported time spent on various use types, such as bathing, and water supplied at the system level, was estimated.

Results and discussion:
Household size, education level, age and occupation were found to be critical factors influencing end water use and water supply. This not only elucidates why water is supplied and used inefficiently in rural systems (e.g., due to non-domestic use), but also accounts for the variability of perceived water use within peri-urban systems. The water use perceived by households in the rural systems was statistically similar across the rural systems studied and was significantly lower than that in the peri-urban systems. Most rural systems exhibited very low ratios of perceived water use to water supplied, indicating that either water is lost in conveyance or that water is used for non-domestic purposes. Peri-urban users, who perceived to use more water than users in rural areas, were associated with younger and more educated households. Higher education levels were also associated with better financial capacity and technical ability to manage water systems; therefore, peri-urban systems were better managed.

En el marco de la gestión del recurso hídrico la disminución de las fuentes hídricas es causada principalmente por la alta demanda y el uso ineficiente del agua lo que impacta negativamente su disponibilidad. Varias intervenciones se han hecho para reducir la demanda de agua, sin embargo, las acciones de las personas rara vez son consideradas en su análisis. La gestión de la demanda implica considerar tanto los sistemas hídricos como al ser humano simultáneamente. Hasta el día de hoy esta conexión entre el agua y el individuo generalmente se aborda utilizando indicadores socio-económicos a escala regional, nacional e incluso a escala global, pero aún pocas veces se integran variables sociales y a nivel local que puedan explicar comportamientos ambientales. El objetivo de este estudio es identificar los factores de contexto que influyen en el uso del agua para uso doméstico y que influyen en el suministro por los sistemas de acueductos rurales. Se seleccionaron ocho acueductos, cuatro en zona rural de Restrepo y cuatro en zona peri -urbana de Cali. Se realizaron entrevistas a los gestores del agua, encuestas enfocadas en la conservación del y uso del agua en 920 hogares y por otra parte se hicieron mediciones de caudal para estimación de suministro de agua diario y pérdidas de agua en cada uno de los acueductos. Los factores de contexto que influyen en el uso eficiente del agua y las restricciones en el uso del agua son diferentes, sin embargo el nivel de educación es una variable significativa que afecta estos dos comportamientos. Por otra parte la distancia a la ciudad principal, los factores técnicos y organizacionales influyen en el suministro de agua. Los factores de contexto, técnicos e institucionales influyen en el uso del agua a nivel hogar y a nivel del sistema de suministro de agua.

Water withdrawals around the world have increased almost twice as fast as the population during the last century. Higher than expected water demand is leading to water scarcity and causing rapid depletion of water tables around the world. One reason behind the higher than expected demand is the inefficient use of water. Inefficient use of water affects the well-being of society, the economic stability of countries, and environmental health. Indeed, water use efficiency (WUE) is one of the pillars of sustainable development goals (SDG 6.4.1). However, progress toward achieving WUE is slow, especially for many developing countries where the degradation of natural resources is critical, economic growth is slow, and there are few strong institutions to coordinate actions. One reason behind inefficient water use is human behavior. A variety of contextual and psychological factors underlie the behavior. The contextual factors include socioeconomic, technical, institutional, and environmental factors and the behavioral factors include factors associated with the perception of risk, attitudes, norms, etc. Yet, few studies consider an integrated view of these factors in shaping water use behavior. This paper consolidates contextual and behavioral factors which influence water use, studies the gaps in our understanding of human water behavior underlying WUE and highlights the need to comprehensive assess and consistently measure such factors and their relationships. Based on the gaps identified, it proposes a conceptual model that connects contextual and behavioral factors and represents potential cause-effect relationships as supported by various environmental behavior approaches and psychological theories. Based on the literature review of water use, and conservation behavior, environmental psychology, and water use models, this model proposes an institutional factor to assess the relationship between institutions and stakeholders, and study contextual factors linked not only for individual water users but also studying these factors for individuals of water supply organizations.