The removal of nitrate (NO3−) from water and its subsequent valorization for various applications are crucial due to environmental, health, and economic considerations. A promising method for its removal is the process of electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate. Copper/nickel (Cu/Ni) composite electrodes have demonstrated potential for this process in aqueous solution, however, the effect of thin Cu film coated on Ni using physical vapor deposition (PVD) has not been investigated for NO3− removal. Here, the PVD technique was employed to deposit a thin film of Cu onto a Ni plate to form Cu-Ni composite electrodes of varying Cu thicknesses (25–100 nm), enabling the investigation of the influence of the Cu film thickness on NO3− reduction. Electrodes prepared using PVD were utilized for electrocatalytic nitrate reduction (NO3RR) for the first time. The Cu-Ni electrodes were analyzed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to examine the deposited Cu film which is critical for NO3− reduction and ammonium (NH4+) selectivity. The Cu film was found to be uniformly distributed on the Ni plate without any additional contamination. Cyclic voltammetry was performed to obtain the information on electron transfer between the Cu-Ni electrode and the nitrogen (N2) species on the surface. NO3− was primarily reduced to NH4+, with no significant difference in the NO3− conversion rate observed as a function of the Cu thickness. As the Cu thickness increased, the current density decreased. This study also investigated the effect of stirring on NO3− reduction, considering potential applications where rotation or stirring is not feasible such as in some batteries. The findings of this investigation indicate that thin film coated electrodes fabricated using the PVD method exhibit capability for NO3− elimination through electrocatalytic reduction processes.

The agricultural sector, particularly in rural areas, faces numerous challenges, including labor shortages, fluctuating costs, and unpredictable weather patterns. The Makara app emerges as a pioneering digital solution, specifically designed to address the multifaceted needs of small-scale farmers. This chapter presents a case study on the Makara app, highlighting its role in transforming agricultural practices through digital innovation. The app provides a comprehensive platform for farmers to manage their land, crops, and financials effectively. It offers detailed land and crop management, budgeting, and activity management. Additionally, Makara’s day-to-day advisory service and risk prediction module assist farmers in optimizing resource use and enhancing productivity. The app’s multilingual interface and offline mode ensure accessibility and usability in remote areas. This study analyzes the software development, farmer engagement, feedback collection, software refinement, and deployment process of the Makara app among the select farmers of the Nagpur region in Maharashtra, India. The Makara app exemplifies the potential of digital tools in promoting sustainable and profitable farming practices in rural communities.

Smallholder farmers are critical to global food production and natural resource management. Due to increased competition for water resources and variability in rainfall due to climate change, chronic irrigation water scarcity is rising particularly in drought-prone regions. Improving the awareness of climatic risk to yields and incomes is critical to sustainable agricultural intensification. However, adopting a new technology represents a certain level of risk for the farmers, who invest time and economic resources in changing their practices. We have developed a mobile application, currently for cotton, that would allow farmers to actualize the risk of growing cotton. By implementing a sociohydrological dynamic model with a kernel principal component analysis structural error model, the software provides a risk forecast of the yield and profit the user can expect at the end of the season. The mobile app not only processes social and agricultural information provided by the user but also retrieves and continually updates climate datasets from the web, as well as market prices. The users can request the execution of the sociohydrological model to the servers from their own mobile devices. By following an agile methodology, the mobile app has been tested with ∼100 farmers in order to get feedback from real users; this brought the opportunity to redesign the functionality based on the correct understanding of information and, a fast and clear management of the tool and helping in the adoption of the technology. This was combined with existing knowledge around communicating risk by using multiple modes of communication - text, graphics, sound and video - all of which were implemented to reinforce the knowledge communicated and ensure sufficient redundancy. This turned out to be beneficial for farmers with low prior knowledge and higher acceptability of the mobile app by the users as evidenced through feedback rounds with them. This study exemplifies an approach to address the gap in communicating risks in agriculture using a user-friendly mobile application.

Mobile applications have the potential to revolutionise agricultural advisories, providing farmers with real-time information and insights for improved decision-making. However, the adoption of such apps is influenced by various behavioural factors, necessitating a participatory approach of development with the stakeholders. This study proposes a framework that begins with a prototype app informed by a literature review and the identification of behavioral determinants of app adoption. Iterative participatory feedback, grounded in these determinants, is employed to refine the app. The framework is demonstrated through the case study of Makara, an app providing risk advisories for farm yield, income, and risk mitigating practices in Maharashtra, India. A user-focused Theory of Change (ToC) was used to design a survey to identify socio-economic and behavioral drivers of agricultural app adoption. Data collected from 1354 farmers across four districts of Maharashtra during April–May 2023 informed a linear regression model that identified significant explanatory factors. Building on these findings, multiple feedback sessions with farmers were conducted over a year to iteratively co-develop the app's features. Key behavioral determinants, including norms, trust, abilities, and attitudes towards adopting mobile-based agricultural advisories, significantly influenced adoption. The participatory design process addressed these factors, incorporating features such as multi-lingual support, intercropping and multi-cropping options, and multi-component budgeting to enhance trust and perceived ease in using the app. User-friendliness was further improved through redundant communication of risks, combining textual and audio-visual formats. This paper presents a mixed-methods approach to integrating behavioral drivers of agricultural (advisory app) technology adoption into a participatory co-design framework (of such an app), enabling considerations for inclusivity and scaling in the design process of the app itself.

To better understand the increasing human impact on the water cycle and the feedbacks between hydrology and society, the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) organized the scientific decade “Panta Rhei–Everything Flows: Change in hydrology and society” (2013–2022). A key finding is the need to use integrated approaches to assess the co-evolution of human–water systems in order to avoid unintended consequences of human interventions over long periods of time. Additionally, substantial progress has been made in leveraging new data sources on human behaviour, e.g. through text mining of social media posts. Much has been learned about detecting hydrological changes and attributing them to their drivers, e.g. quantifying climate effects on floods. To achieve further progress, we recommend broadening the understanding, the discipline and training activities, while at the same time pursuing synthesis by focusing on key themes, developing innovative approaches and finding sustainable solutions to the world’s water problems.

Biodegradable membranes are crucial for environmental applications, offering sustainable and low-impact solutions. These membranes play a vital role in biodegradable batteries by separating the anode and cathode while facilitating proton movement. The aim of this study is to develop a biodegradable membrane using biodegradable polymers such as chitosan (CS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), reinforced with filter paper. In this research, a cost effective, biodegradable membranes using CS, PVA, and a 1:1 CS/PVA composite through solution-casting method were synthesized. The membranes were reinforced with cellulose filter paper and coated with water-resistant graphene conductive ink. Performance metrics, including swelling ratios, water uptake, ion exchange capacity, oxygen diffusion, proton conductivity, and degradation in compost tea, were evaluated. Uncoated CS membrane exhibited the highest water uptake (94.10%), while uncoated PVA membrane demonstrated the highest swelling ratio (150%) and ion exchange capacity (3.94 meq/g). Coated CS/PVA membrane showed the lowest oxygen diffusion coefficient (0.058 × 10−5 cm2/s) and the highest proton conductivity (1.74 mS/cm). All membranes exhibited slow degradation over 100 days. The findings of this research have significant implications beyond the laboratory, presenting a biodegradable, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional membranes. These membranes can be utilized in the construction of biobatteries, which, in turn, can be employed to power low-cost devices.

Farmers in Maharashtra, India, face water scarcity, leading to poor crop yields and farmer indebtedness. To improve water use efficiency and mitigate climate change impacts on livelihoods, governments promote micro-irrigation technologies. Still, the rate of adoption of these technologies remains low. This study aims to develop a complete overview of the socio-economic, psychological and contextual factors that influence adoption in a drought prone region of Maharashtra by combining two well-known models for understanding behavior, the RANAS model and the SSBC model. Our analysis used a mixed method approach. First, a logistic regression was made, using survey data from 419 farming households covering socio-economic and individual-level psychological factors from the RANAS-model. In addition, 22 qualitative semi-structured interviews were held to explore contextual, social, and personal-level factors, using insights from the SSBC model. The results show that farmers who are concerned with the availability of their water source and believe that getting water is becoming more difficult may not adopt micro irrigation systems. Prevalent norms influence farmers actions and choices. Strong financial abilities and technical skills are important drivers of the adoption of micro irrigation systems, in addition to the confidence in their abilities to buy and maintain them. Farmers who adopt micro irrigation systems are often more well-off than farmers adopting furrow irrigation systems and their ability to invest outweighs the importance of saving water through the adoption of efficient micro irrigation systems. Finally, we find that tremendous efforts, high uncertainty of the process of getting a micro-irrigation subsidy, combined with low trust in the government in the area, and feelings of unfairness negatively influence farmers and discourage them to adopt micro-irrigation. Taken together, our mixed-methods approach led to a more nuanced, technology-specific understanding of irrigation technology adoption beyond existing studies, offering valuable insights for designing more effective behavior change strategies and possible ways to encourage the adoption of water efficient irrigation technologies.

The Agricultural water interventions can trigger human-water feedback, including unintended supply demand feedback—where increased water availability drives greater water use. In the Kamadhiya catchment, India, the introduction of check dams (CDs) led to a shift toward more water-intensive crops like cotton and wheat. This study formulates and tests hypotheses to understand these dynamics using an agent-based model (ABM) that integrates a spatially explicit hydrological model with a farmer behavior module. The ABM simulates 38,447 farmers using the RANAS behavioral framework, based on household surveys and observed data. Model results confirm the hypothesized feedback: increased water from CDs led to an 11.9% rise in cotton and 36.1% in wheat areas, boosting incomes and increasing adoption of drip and borewell irrigation, particularly near CDs. While drip irrigation systems improve water efficiency and post-monsoon groundwater levels, the saved water enables further wheat expansion—triggering a second supply demand feedback loop. These changes are spatially concentrated near CDs, exacerbating within-catchment disparities. Overall, about 54% of the additional recharge is used for irrigation expansion, lowering groundwater levels by 1.0 m and reducing the net benefit of recharge interventions. These findings underscore the need to critically understand human-water feedback and value of ABM as a tool to support more informed planning by offering strategies that mitigate negative externalities.

Sensor data and agro-hydrological modeling have been combined to improve irrigation management. Crop water models simulating crop growth and production in response to the soil-water environment need to be parsimonious in terms of structure, inputs and parameters to be applied in data scarce regions. Irrigation management using soil moisture sensors requires them to be site-calibrated, low-cost, and maintainable. Therefore, there is a need for parsimonious crop modeling combined with low-cost soil moisture sensing without losing predictive capability. This study calibrated the low-cost capacitance-based Spectrum Inc. SM100 soil moisture sensor using multiple least squares and machine learning models, with both laboratory and field data. The best calibration technique, field-based piece-wise linear regression (calibration r² = 0.76, RMSE = 3.13 %, validation r² = 0.67, RMSE = 4.57 %), was used to study the effect of sensor calibration on the performance of the FAO AquaCrop Open Source (AquaCrop-OS) model by calibrating its soil hydraulic parameters. This approach was tested during the wheat cropping season in 2018, in Kanpur (India), in the Indo-Gangetic plains, resulting in some best practices regarding sensor calibration being recommended. The soil moisture sensor was calibrated best in field conditions against a secondary standard sensor (UGT GmbH. SMT100) taken as a reference (r² = 0.67, RMSE = 4.57 %), followed by laboratory calibration against gravimetric soil moisture using the dry-down (r² = 0.66, RMSE = 5.26 %) and wet-up curves respectively (r² = 0.62, RMSE = 6.29 %). Moreover, model overfitting with machine learning algorithms led to poor field validation performance. The soil moisture simulation of AquaCrop-OS improved significantly by incorporating raw reference sensor and calibrated low-cost sensor data. There were non-significant impacts on biomass simulation, but water productivity improved significantly. Notably, using raw low-cost sensor data to calibrate AquaCrop led to poorer performances than using the literature. Hence using literature values could save sensor costs without compromising model performance if sensor calibration was not possible. The results suggest the essentiality of calibrating low-cost soil moisture sensors for crop modeling calibration to improve crop water productivity.

The new scientific decade (2023-2032) of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) aims at searching for sustainable solutions to undesired water conditions–whether it be too little, too much or too polluted. Many of the current issues originate from global change, while solutions to problems must embrace local understanding and context. The decade will explore the current water crises by searching for actionable knowledge within three themes: global and local interactions, sustainable solutions and innovative cross-cutting methods. We capitalise on previous IAHS Scientific Decades shaping a trilogy; from Hydrological Predictions (PUB) to Change and Interdisciplinarity (Panta Rhei) to Solutions (HELPING). The vision is to solve fundamental water-related environmental and societal problems by engaging with other disciplines and local stakeholders. The decade endorses mutual learning and co-creation to progress towards UN sustainable development goals. Hence, HELPING is a vehicle for putting science in action, driven by scientists working on local hydrology in coordination with local, regional, and global processes.

Complex contextual and sociopsychological factors influence the adoption of agricultural technologies like irrigation. This study used the sociopsychological Risk-Attitude-Norms-Abilities-Self-Regulation (RANAS) framework to examine the factors impacting irrigation adoption in Maharashtra (India). Logistic regression modelling was conducted based on cross-sectional surveys in 2019 and 2022, with interim interventions promoting risk-awareness and irrigation technology training. Effects of the interventions on the psychological variables in 2022 were corrected using instrumental variable regression. While micro-irrigation adoption rose from 36.9% to 62.8%, overall irrigation counterproductively decreased from 81.6% to 70.4%. Results indicated that wealth and risk-aversion remained relevant, while self-perceived ability and attitude towards irrigation became non-significant to irrigation adoption. This study highlights the unintended consequences of interventions and the necessity to also transform attitudes, and promote psychological ownership and trust to sustain irrigation technology adoption behaviour. These results could support stakeholders (e.g., policy makers, water authorities) in designing and implementing more sustainable interventions.

Introduction:
Water scarcity is a significant global challenge that frequently manifests as inadequate water supply for domestic purposes. However, domestic water insecurity can occur even in regions where water is naturally abundant. Despite Colombia’s plentiful surface water resources, rural and peri-urban communities often experience limited access to water. Existing water supply systems are frequently susceptible to poor maintenance, particularly in remote areas where much of the infrastructure remains outdated. Consequently, water is often lost through leaks or unintentional non-domestic use. Although a regulatory framework for water usage exists, it does not consistently translate into effective implementation.

Methodology:
Based on an extensive survey of approximately 1000 households in four rural and four peri-urban communities in the Valle del Cauca Department, Colombia, we identified the factors underlying inefficient water supply and use. Perceived water use at the household level, based on self-reported time spent on various use types, such as bathing, and water supplied at the system level, was estimated.

Results and discussion:
Household size, education level, age and occupation were found to be critical factors influencing end water use and water supply. This not only elucidates why water is supplied and used inefficiently in rural systems (e.g., due to non-domestic use), but also accounts for the variability of perceived water use within peri-urban systems. The water use perceived by households in the rural systems was statistically similar across the rural systems studied and was significantly lower than that in the peri-urban systems. Most rural systems exhibited very low ratios of perceived water use to water supplied, indicating that either water is lost in conveyance or that water is used for non-domestic purposes. Peri-urban users, who perceived to use more water than users in rural areas, were associated with younger and more educated households. Higher education levels were also associated with better financial capacity and technical ability to manage water systems; therefore, peri-urban systems were better managed.

The adoption of agricultural water interventions for climate change adaptation has been slow and limited despite their established efficacy and benefits. While several studies have identified socio-economic, biophysical, technological and institutional factors that influence adoption, psychological factors have often been overlooked. This study examines the socio-economic and psychological factors, using RANAS behavioral model, that influence the adoption of agricultural water interventions in the semi-arid region of Saurashtra in India. Two contrasting and dominating agricultural water interventions in the area: drip irrigation and borewells are evaluated. Despite subsidies being available for drip irrigation systems, the adoption rate remains low (~16% adopting rate) compared to borewells (~24.5% adoption) with no subsidies reflecting farmer’s preference for supply augmentation measures over demand management. Incorporating psychological factors in the analysis improved the explanatory power of the logistic model by almost threefold, underscoring the significance of psychological factors in explaining farmers’ adoption decisions. Based on the logistic model, major factors determining farmers adoption behaviour identified are farmer’s perceived ability, risk preference and positive beliefs about the technologies along with socio-economic (e.g., land size) and biophysical factors (e.g., proximity to water). The study recommends a multi-pronged approach to increase the adoption of interventions, including augmenting subsidies with efforts on extension services, post-adoption services, training, and awareness campaigns to build farmers’ capacity and raise awareness.

The construction of dams threatens the health of watershed ecosystems. The purpose of this study is to show how multiple dams in a basin can impact hydrological flow regimes and subsequently aquatic ecosystems that depend on river flows. The approach assesses the ecosystem services (ESs), including the tradeoffs between economic and ecological services due to altered flow regimes. It uses a previously developed model that integrates a landscape-based hydrological model with a reservoir operations model on a basin scale. The approach is novel because not only does it offer the analysis of alterations in ecosystem services on a daily scale when pre-dam data are unavailable but also allows for dams to be synthetically placed anywhere in the river network and the corresponding alterations in flow regimes to be simulated in a flexible manner. As a proof of concept, we analyse the economic and ecological performances of different spatial configuration of existing reservoirs instead of synthetically placed reservoirs in the upper Cauvery River basin in India. Such a study is timely and conducted for the first time, especially in light of calls to assess the cascade of reservoirs in India and regions elsewhere where pre-dam data are unavailable. The hydrological impact of different configurations of reservoirs is quantified using indicators of hydrologic alteration (IHAs). Additionally, the production of two major ecosystem services that depend on the flow regime of the river, as indicated by irrigated agricultural production and the normalized fish diversity index (NFDI), is estimated, and a tradeoff curve, i.e. a production possibility frontier, for the two services is established. Through the lens of the indices chosen for the ecosystem services, the results show that smaller reservoirs on lower-order streams are better for the basin economy and the environment than larger reservoirs. Cultivating irrigated crops of higher value can maximize the value of stored water and, with lower storage, generate a better economic value than cultivating lower-value crops while reducing hydrological alterations. The proposed approach, especially when simulating synthetic spatial configurations of reservoirs, can help water and river basin managers to understand the provision of ecosystem services in hydrologically altered basins, optimize dam operations, or even prioritize dam removals with a goal of achieving a balanced provision of ecosystem services.

Changes in the water cycle (availability/variability of water) influence and shape human society (e.g. floods and droughts have shaped human civilization), whereas decisions humans take (e.g. building dams, irrigation) influence the water cycle. The study of these coupled and co-evolving human–water systems is central to sociohydrology (Sivapalan et al., 2012). For example, irrigation efficiency measures can lead to increased water use, rather than the expected reduction (Perry and Steduto, 2017), or the unplanned proliferation of rainwater harvesting structures such as check dams in river streams can reduce downstream flows leading to upstream–downstream conflicts or even increased demand (Alam et al., 2022; Calder et al., 2008). While the motivation of such interventions has been to make regional agriculture climate resilient, they can have unintended negative impacts such as shifts toward more water-intensive crops, increased vulnerability to droughts and groundwater exploitation (Alam et al., 2022). While farmers of all income groups behave similarly, poorer farmers who cannot adapt to these negative consequences (e.g. by drilling deeper groundwater wells) bear most of the negative impacts (Bouma et al., 2011; Narayanamoorthy, 2015). Without accounting for the bidirectional feedback of human–water systems, investments in interventions to increase irrigation efficiency or harvest rainwater can lead to long-term unintended consequences, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities and social inequities, or impacting the sustainability of resources. We propose a way forward to disentangle such bidirectional feedback so that coupled human–water systems (e.g. human agricultural systems) can be realistically modeled and the effects of the intervention on human well-being are more accurately estimated.

Soil moisture monitoring is essential for a variety of applications including agriculture, forestry, and environmental monitoring. However, soil moisture sensors may be expensive and require batteries or other energy sources, making them unsuitable for remote or off-grid locations and farmers. Improper e-waste management of short-lived sensing components can reveal the contradictions of solutions aimed at environmental sustainability, which also degrade environmental health. Therefore, the development of low-cost, off-grid, biodegradable in-situ soil moisture sensing system (SMSS) is necessary for these regions. This article provides an overview of the current state-of-the-art in low-cost, off-grid, and biodegradable in-situ soil moisture sensing. It highlights low-cost SMSS components including hardware (microcontrollers and communication modules), software, and off-grid ambient energy sources. It also highlights the current research in biodegradable polymers used for moisture sensing. The challenges in combining low-cost, off-grid, and biodegradable soil moisture sensing are identified as a research gap. Finally, the underlining question of the “perfect” choice of SMSS is explored based on the trade-offs of performance, operational feasibility, and the newly proposed aspect of biodegradability, consequently suggesting context-specific decisions by consciously managing these tradeoffs.

Groundwater depletion has become increasingly challenging, and many cities worldwide have adopted drastic policies to relieve water stress due to socioeconomic growth. Located on the declining aquifer of the North China Plain, Beijing, for example, has developed plans to limit the size of the city’s population. However, the effect of population displacement under uncertain macroeconomic and climate change remains ambiguous. We adopt a sociohydrological model, with explicit consideration of the dynamics of human-water interactions, to explore the groundwater vulnerability of Beijing. We investigate how human response might shape the development trajectories of the groundwater-population-economy system under different macroscale economic and climate scenarios. Furthermore, we use a machine learning algorithm to identify the decisive factors to be considered for reducing groundwater vulnerability. Our results show that while rapid external economic development or larger annual average precipitation would enable recovery of the groundwater table in the short term, they may slacken human water shortage awareness and result in more acute groundwater depletion in the long run. Strengthening policymaker perceptions of groundwater depletion would prompt timely response policies for controlling population size. Improving the quantity and quality of labor force input to economic development would avoid downturns in the economy due to labor shortages. The outcomes of this study suggest that these strategies would effectively reduce groundwater vulnerability in the long run without causing severe socioeconomic recession. These findings highlight the importance of endogenizing human behavioral dynamics in sustainable urban water management.

Given the increasing demand for high-quality food and protein, global food security remains a challenge, particularly in the face of global change. However, since agriculture, food and water security are inextricably linked, they need to be examined via an interdisciplinary lens. Sociohydrology was introduced from a post-positivist perspective to explore and describe the bidirectional feedbacks and dynamics between human and water systems. This review situates sociohydrology in the agricultural domain, highlighting its contributions in explaining the unintended consequences of water management interventions, addressing climate change impacts due to/on agriculture and incorporating human behaviour into the description of agricultural water systems. Sociohydrology has combined social and psychological insights with novel data sources and diverse multi-method approaches to model human behaviour. However, as agriculture and agriculturalists face global change, sociohydrology can better use concepts from resilience thinking more explicitly to identify gaps in terms of desirable properties in resilient agricultural water systems, potentially informing more holistic climate adaptation policy.

Increased variability of the water cycle manifested by climate change is a growing global threat to agriculture with strong implications for food and livelihood security. Thus, there is an urgent need for adaptation in agriculture. Agricultural water management (AWM) interventions, interventions for managing water supply and demand, are extensively promoted and implemented as adaptation measures in multiple development programs globally. Studies assessing these adaptation measures overwhelmingly focus on positive impacts, however, there is a concern that these studies may be biased towards well-managed and successful projects and often miss out on reporting negative externalities. These externalities result from coevolutionary dynamics of human-water systems as AWM interventions impact hydrological flows and their use and adoption is shaped by the societal response. We review the documented externalities of AWM interventions and present a conceptual framework classifying negative externalities linked to water and human systems into negative hydrological externalities and unexpected societal feedbacks. We show that these externalities can lead to long term unsustainable and inequitable outcomes. Understanding how the externalities lead to undesirable outcomes demands rigorous modeling of the feedbacks between human and water systems, for which we discuss the key criteria that such models should meet. Based on these criteria, we showcase that differentiated and limited inclusion of key feedbacks in current water modeling approaches (e.g. hydrological models, hydro-economic, and water resource models) is a critical limitation and bottleneck to understanding and predicting negative externalities of AWM interventions. To account for the key feedback, we find agent-based modeling (ABM) as the method that has the potential to meet the key criteria. Yet there are gaps that need to be addressed in the context of ABM as a tool to unravel the negative externalities of AWM interventions. We carry out a systemic review of ABM application to agricultural systems, capturing how it is currently being applied and identifying the knowledge gaps that need to be bridged to unravel the negative externalities of AWM interventions. We find that ABM has been extensively used to model agricultural systems and, in many cases, the resulting externalities with unsustainable and inequitable outcomes. However, gaps remain in terms of limited use of integrated surface-groundwater hydrological models, inadequate representation of farmers’ behavior with heavy reliance on rational choice or simple heuristics and ignoring heterogeneity of farmers’ characteristics within a population.