AbstractMobility as a Service (MaaS) has emerged as a promising approach to integrating diverse transport modes under a unified digital platform. Yet, if poorly governed, MaaS risks exacerbating inequalities and contributing to transport gentrification. While the literature widely acknowledges the need for public sector involvement to ensure equitable outcomes, there remains limited guidance on how authorities should determine their appropriate level of engagement. This study addresses this gap by developing a decision-support tool to assess and define the role of public transport authorities (PTAs) in MaaS implementation. Drawing on an empirical classification of 74 existing MaaS and “MaaS-like” systems worldwide, the research identifies key institutional, infrastructural, and regulatory factors that shape the extent of public sector involvement. Using the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions and metagovernance theory as the conceptual foundation, these insights are operationalised into a flowchart that supports context-specific role definition. The proposed tool provides policymakers with a practical framework to align governance strategies with institutional capacity, thereby fostering equitable and sustainable MaaS development.

Transport innovations are often described as ‘disruptive’ in public discourse, yet their acceptance varies due to underlying social-psychological factors that influence user decisions, with responses differing across user groups and contexts. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is one such innovation that has experienced slow adoption, despite its potential benefits, with many initiatives failing to deliver on their promise. This study examines user perceptions and attitudes influencing MaaS adoption, demonstrating that a one-size-fits-all approach is inadequate given the diverse needs and contextual factors shaping user acceptance. We surveyed users in 10 cities across Europe, Latin America, Africa, and Asia, assessing preferences and attitudes toward MaaS and new mobility services. A structural equation model was estimated, followed by a multi-group analysis stratified by the development level of local transport networks. The results indicate that latent constructs such as Performance Expectancy and Social Influence significantly increase the intention to use MaaS, while Commute Satisfaction reduces it. Moreover, the strength and significance of these latent constructs vary with the degree of transport system development. We conclude that MaaS has the greatest potential in cities with lower levels of transport digitalization and integration, where user dissatisfaction creates more space for its acceptance. In contrast, in more developed systems, where transport services are already highly integrated and user satisfaction is higher, the value proposition of MaaS must be more carefully tailored to address specific unmet needs. These findings underscore the importance of flexible, context-sensitive implementation strategies for MaaS, informed by social- psychological drivers, to effectively promote sustainable transport choices.