The research conducted within the Palestinian Dutch Academic Cooperation on Water (PADUCO) program confirms that capacitive electrodialysis (CED) has the potential of becoming the next innovation in water purification. It uses less energy (<0.5 kWh/m3 ) than reverse osmosis (3–10 kWh/m3 ) and is, in particular, promising for local small-scale use, since it produces clean irrigation or drinking water not continuously, but in batches. The current prototype produces 2 m3 /d for irrigation and 1.6 m3 for drinking water. Additionally, research has been conducted on options for entrepreneurship, taking into account a conducive context of required policies and institutions. These to an extent appear to be a condition for a successful introduction. The present publication aimed to research the feasibility of using this CED device for four types of use: irrigation for small farmers and large-scale farmers and small-scale and large-scale drinking water companies that pres-ently use reverse osmosis. Preliminary results showed that medium-sized water companies may most easily introduce the technology and that in the long-term small-scale water companies and small-scale farmers may benefit most from the new technology. A scenario for an improved entrepreneurial approach for drinking water companies and farmers is also developed considering their level of sophistication and the further development of the CED system towards large-scale production (of the CED system itself) and user-friendliness. At present, medium drinking water companies and medium farmers appear to be better positioned for the adoption of the new CED technology, as they produce and operate on a higher level of sophistication. Especially for the small farmers but also for small drinking water companies, more training and support, also with capital investment, is required. This can succeed if government agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations, investors, and other stakeholders align their efforts to that purpose, in this way creating a conducive policy and institutional environment. For the initial introduction of the CED system and in order to make it affordable, introduction for humanitarian purposes, refugees, Bedouins could be the first step. ... Read more

Growing population pressure, climate change and urbanization necessitate the increase of agricultural production and innovation. Horticulture by means of protected cultivation primarily for vegetables production seems promising by creating a controlled environment for light, temperature and moisture and against diseases. But there is a gap between the high-tech precision horticulture as practiced for instance in the Netherlands and the context and capacities of African smallholder farmers. On the one side high-tech large-scale greenhouse cultivation is introduced by foreign companies, management and capital, while on the other side many smallholders grapple with lack of quality inputs, lack of funding, lack of frugal small-scale technical solutions (greenhouses, irrigation systems, water provision, disease and residue treatment, monitoring soil fertility etc.), lack of infrastructure and lack of capacity. Over and above an analysis of the situation the paper proposes a way forward consisting of three elements: entrepreneurship and capacity training (1), a strategy of gradual growth (2), and finally a comprehensive business innovation system (3). The research is based on long-term student involvement by internships and master thesis studies from the Delft University of Technology and includes the experiences of a Dutch consortium of entrepreneurs and researchers (greenhouse constructors, seed companies, pest control, financial institutions, entrepreneurship). This consortium tries to raise the capacities of smallholder farmers and take them to a higher level. Findings show that in principle there is a business case for introducing existing smallholder farmers and young entrepreneurs to protected cultivation under the leadership of more experienced farmers, supported by a network of stakeholders (retailers, banks, Dutch and African companies, academic partners, NGOs, government agencies). Cooperation of many stakeholders, the creation of an enabling environment and training of capacity appear to be crucial conditions for success. ... Read more

Usually the present-day understanding of Africa doesn't look back beyond its colonial past. But the difficulties of African nation states with the Western system of a strong and accountable state and an open civil society have to be understood from the perspective of the precolonial system of in-group solidarity and vertical networks under paternalistic authority. The Western political order doesn't stand a chance of being adopted if the traditions of social solidarity and personalized relationships cannot be integrated into it. This need comes in a different light by the recent developments of the impersonal and functionalized political and economic system of neoliberalism in the West itself, which increasingly evokes neo-tribal reactions in search for new in-group solidarity and identity. While Africa is grappling to adopt the Western system, Western societies return to the tribal heritage, it seems. This essay makes a plea to locate the need and desire for belongingness in the economic sphere of small and medium-sized enterprises. They cultivate strong bonds of solidarity and cooperative networks. Their temporary existence and fast rhythms of change prevent them from slipping off into the old exclusion mechanism of the tribal existence, which is so dangerous in politics. Both Western and African societies may find a new future by learning from each other's past. ... Read more

In Africa slowly but steadily a transformation is taking place in the management styles of enterprises. There is a trend towards more precise time management, more precision in dealing with increasingly sophisticated technology, more feedback from the bottom to the top in order to manage the processes properly, more professionalism and independence of the individual worker. This contribution makes two points: first, neither cultures nor the so-called mental states of individuals are ever static, but always on the move. Second, the force of passion and inspiration by which particular cultural values are endorsed in a particular context makes all the difference in their impact. The importance of these two propositions comes to the fore, if the concept of an “economic culture” is taken into consideration. The claim of the authors is that the ongoing cultural transformation can be better understood in the dynamic approach of cultural values as proposed here. ... Read more

The neoliberal approach dominating the globalization process is criticized in this contribution as not working for the promotion of entrepreneurship in the Kenyan situation. It is a shortcut of the Western social and economic heritage in the first place. It has a limited understanding of human beings as only consisting of needs which should be fulfilled by calculative consumers and producers on an open market with an equal level playing field for quite unequal (global) forces. It is detrimental when introduced in Africa, not only because of the lack of competitive capacity, but also because it collides with the traditional value system of communitarianism and respect etc. A case on entrepreneurship is analyzed in which these detrimental effects come to the fore. Another case is analyzed, which shows a more positive example, creating a bridge and installing a learning process between traditional African values of respect and communitarianism and modern civil society-like values such as equal access, egalitarianism, effective time management and more. The gist of this contribution is a plea for "talking business". A dialogue between the African heritage and modern managerial values should find the way forward for entrepreneurship in Africa. Traditional and modern values need to "talk" to each other. But we should talk business: the African entrepreneurial solution should be effective, competitive on the global market and it should express the African contribution towards a lasting unification of different traditions living together in one planetary and economic house. ... Read more

Instead of presenting a business approach or a community (NGO) approach towards development as an either-or alternative, these two in actual fact constitute a continuum. This is particularly the case if the bottom of the pyramid is targeted, like smallholder farmers. Social enterprises often cannot avoid building the social and institutional conditions for proper functioning as a business. That may take investment costs (including social investment costs, time and energy) that cannot be integrated into a revenue model. This analysis is corroborated by examples and cases from a minor and internship program from the Delft University of Technology on international entrepreneurship and development. The paper adopts a civil society approach whereby a well-functioning civil society is understood as a condition for doing business. This entails free association, shifting memberships of individuals and organizations, lack of confinement to specific ethnic groups or strict state authority, and disentanglement from patrimonial systems. Then there are requirements for a universalist state (rule of law, law enforcement, transparency) and capable citizens. Where such an institutional framework is lacking either NGOs or social enterprises have to fill the gap. And since the costs of these activities cannot be covered by the revenue model, a bottom of the pyramid approach can be designed more effectively by including civil society partners and by understanding the roles of the different stakeholders. Thus cooperation between social enterprises and NGOs will be more effective if they have a better understanding of their mutual contribution and role in development. ... Read more

For entrepreneurship to flourish an enabling institutional and cultural environment is required. On the surface of things entrepreneurship is dependent on initiatives of daring and competitive individuals, but implicitly in the notion of entrepreneurship there are also assumptions about cooperation and regulation, without which it cannot deliver on its promises. The combination of a strong state governed by law and an open civil society is therefore researched, since it is supposed to provide the institutional and moral basis for effective economic development. It is necessary to get a better understanding of the process of state formation and of the connection between state and civil society, as a historical project. In this contribution some of their historical origins will be traced, in order to draw some lessons for contemporary economic development and entrepreneurship. Besides the role of the state and civil society also attention will be paid to the role of a particular mindset and value set by which these institutions are supported and maintained.
The focus is on the theoretical framework Rosenstock-Huessy offers on state formation in the West, in co-evolution with society and social values. His insights will be related to more recent work on the interconnection of state, civil society and development. The insights gained from that exercise will be applied to the interconnection of state and civil society in present-day Africa ... Read more

This paper takes a capability approach to analyze the role of entrepreneurship in the socio-economic development of present-day Sub Saharan Africa. The paper zooms in on the nature of the capabilities that are built through the development of entrepreneurship; the key challenges to the development of such capabilities in a Sub Saharan African context; and the question to what extent successful entrepreneurship in Africa entails the development of a specifically African version of such capabilities. The analysis is based on in-depth case studies of entrepreneurship and capability formation in different African countries, which offer complementary insights. The most successful cases exhibit a highly creative management strategy that is neither completely western, nor solely wedded to African traditions and values. Rather, it revolves around negotiating the interface between these socio-cultural spheres by forging new, creative mixtures in which the strengths of both are combined and conflicts and trade-offs are managed more or less successfully. In the context of the socio-cultural transformation that Africa is currently undergoing in a fast globalizing world, the mastery of this complex art by local entrepreneurs is identified as the most fundamental capability for fostering business success, human development and increased societal wellbeing. ... Read more

This contribution answers the question: what capacities are required for engineers to participate in entrepreneurship for development, specifically in developing countries? Related to this main question is a number of sub-questions: (a) What extra demands does a different cultural and institutional environment pose on entrepreneurship? (b) How does the management style of the enterprises involved find proper and effective solutions at the interface of different and often opposing (traditional and new) value sets and institutional arrangements? (c) How are these different value sets and institutional arrangements imbricated in each other and in (the use of) the technology—and technology in them? (d) How does this affect the education and curriculum building of engineering students? The author will move to and fro between experiences from practice and insights from theory so that theory and practice inform and explain each other. The author will finally propose one superior value or capacity in order to deal with the cultural and institutional differences indicated: the capacity for planetary movement, i.e. the capacity to alternate (consciously and deliberately) between different value sets and to compose a management style that combines different elements, timely and temporarily. ... Read more