A. Broer
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1
Introducing polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) in vessels is a viable way to accomplish zero-emission shipping. However, PEMFC performance can degrade due to intrusion of airborne contaminants via the cathode inlet. This study focuses on salt and the VOCs benzene, toluene and naphthalene specifically. Little to no data is available on their concentration inside engine rooms of sea-going vessels because on board measurements have not been conducted or reported. Especially for air salinity, experimental contamination concentrations might be significantly higher than the salt in sea air. Therefore, field-measurements were conducted on board of a ship in various weather conditions and at different locations on Western European sea routes. The average saline concentration was (Formula presented.) g/L with a maximum of (Formula presented.) g/L inside the ship. The highest measured value is (Formula presented.) times lower than the average concentration applied in experimental literature. This suggests further degradation studies are needed to clarify the impact of lower, representative amounts of salt on PEMFCs performance. Benzene, toluene and naphthalene remained at least one order of magnitude below harmful concentrations and are therefore not expected to cause degradation in maritime fuel cells.
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Introducing polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) in vessels is a viable way to accomplish zero-emission shipping. However, PEMFC performance can degrade due to intrusion of airborne contaminants via the cathode inlet. This study focuses on salt and the VOCs benzene, toluene and naphthalene specifically. Little to no data is available on their concentration inside engine rooms of sea-going vessels because on board measurements have not been conducted or reported. Especially for air salinity, experimental contamination concentrations might be significantly higher than the salt in sea air. Therefore, field-measurements were conducted on board of a ship in various weather conditions and at different locations on Western European sea routes. The average saline concentration was (Formula presented.) g/L with a maximum of (Formula presented.) g/L inside the ship. The highest measured value is (Formula presented.) times lower than the average concentration applied in experimental literature. This suggests further degradation studies are needed to clarify the impact of lower, representative amounts of salt on PEMFCs performance. Benzene, toluene and naphthalene remained at least one order of magnitude below harmful concentrations and are therefore not expected to cause degradation in maritime fuel cells.
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell degradation in ships
Review of degradation mechanisms and research gaps
Sustainability regulations urge the maritime sector to implement green technologies. The integration of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems is a promising solution to cut emissions. However, their degradation in maritime environments is rarely addressed, while the environment differs significantly from land-based or automotive contexts and can greatly affect the type and extent of damage. Research in this field is especially relevant as ships often operate in isolated areas and require durable and reliable power propulsion systems. This work collects the insights from existing PEMFC durability research and analyzes degradation mechanisms specifically relevant for the maritime field. We consider air and fuel contamination, maritime load profiles, and vessel motions as potential causes. Insightful schematics summarize the content by linking these causes to damage indicators. Moreover, we identify various areas for further research including degradation from interconnected effects of maritime drive cycles, marine air salinity, hydrogen-carriers and their residues, long term maritime vibrations, and dynamic inclination. The overview of existing literature combines insights from electrochemistry and maritime research while the knowledge gaps help to prioritize future research. Together, these elements promote collaboration in this multidisciplinary field, advancing mitigation strategies and improving cell, stack, and ship design and operation. Such improvements encourage PEMFCs application in ships and support the move towards zero-emission shipping.
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Sustainability regulations urge the maritime sector to implement green technologies. The integration of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems is a promising solution to cut emissions. However, their degradation in maritime environments is rarely addressed, while the environment differs significantly from land-based or automotive contexts and can greatly affect the type and extent of damage. Research in this field is especially relevant as ships often operate in isolated areas and require durable and reliable power propulsion systems. This work collects the insights from existing PEMFC durability research and analyzes degradation mechanisms specifically relevant for the maritime field. We consider air and fuel contamination, maritime load profiles, and vessel motions as potential causes. Insightful schematics summarize the content by linking these causes to damage indicators. Moreover, we identify various areas for further research including degradation from interconnected effects of maritime drive cycles, marine air salinity, hydrogen-carriers and their residues, long term maritime vibrations, and dynamic inclination. The overview of existing literature combines insights from electrochemistry and maritime research while the knowledge gaps help to prioritize future research. Together, these elements promote collaboration in this multidisciplinary field, advancing mitigation strategies and improving cell, stack, and ship design and operation. Such improvements encourage PEMFCs application in ships and support the move towards zero-emission shipping.
Switching to Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) systems can greatly reduce the environmental impact from the maritime industry. However, the limited durability of PEMFCs remains an obstacle for their implementation. Understanding fuel cell degradation is especially relevant for ships, as they typically operate for long periods and in isolated areas. Their energy systems therefore need to be exceptionally robust and reliable. In order to improve the design of maritime PEMFCs, we need to improve our understanding of degradation mechanisms induced by their use on a ship. Models can be a great tool to that end.
Many PEMFC models have been developed and used over three decades. They differ on various levels, from their spatial dimensions – one, two or three dimensional – to which processes are modelled and the detail to which they are described. Our previous review1 shows that numerous processes contribute to degradation in a maritime context. These include more general processes, such as load induced damage, as well more specific ones for ships, such as sea salt contamination via the air inlet.
Currently, there is no modelling framework to quantify PEMFC degradation in a maritime environment specifically. The aim of this work is to propose such a framework, building on knowledge gained from previous modeling studies. It should integrate the additional degradation triggers such as salt contamination. We start out by analyzing existing PEMFC durability models. They are rated based on the coding complexity, computational costs, specificity and the possibility to incorporate both specific
maritime as well as general degradation causes. Thereafter we analyze whether and how the models are validated and verified.
The proposed modeling framework can serve as a blueprint for future maritime PEMFC degradation models. These can facilitate vessel specific case studies, investigations to improve cell and stack design and explorations of altered ship operational profiles. The resulting insights will aid scientists, engineers and ship owners to improve PEMFC lifetime in maritime applications. ...
Many PEMFC models have been developed and used over three decades. They differ on various levels, from their spatial dimensions – one, two or three dimensional – to which processes are modelled and the detail to which they are described. Our previous review1 shows that numerous processes contribute to degradation in a maritime context. These include more general processes, such as load induced damage, as well more specific ones for ships, such as sea salt contamination via the air inlet.
Currently, there is no modelling framework to quantify PEMFC degradation in a maritime environment specifically. The aim of this work is to propose such a framework, building on knowledge gained from previous modeling studies. It should integrate the additional degradation triggers such as salt contamination. We start out by analyzing existing PEMFC durability models. They are rated based on the coding complexity, computational costs, specificity and the possibility to incorporate both specific
maritime as well as general degradation causes. Thereafter we analyze whether and how the models are validated and verified.
The proposed modeling framework can serve as a blueprint for future maritime PEMFC degradation models. These can facilitate vessel specific case studies, investigations to improve cell and stack design and explorations of altered ship operational profiles. The resulting insights will aid scientists, engineers and ship owners to improve PEMFC lifetime in maritime applications. ...
Switching to Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) systems can greatly reduce the environmental impact from the maritime industry. However, the limited durability of PEMFCs remains an obstacle for their implementation. Understanding fuel cell degradation is especially relevant for ships, as they typically operate for long periods and in isolated areas. Their energy systems therefore need to be exceptionally robust and reliable. In order to improve the design of maritime PEMFCs, we need to improve our understanding of degradation mechanisms induced by their use on a ship. Models can be a great tool to that end.
Many PEMFC models have been developed and used over three decades. They differ on various levels, from their spatial dimensions – one, two or three dimensional – to which processes are modelled and the detail to which they are described. Our previous review1 shows that numerous processes contribute to degradation in a maritime context. These include more general processes, such as load induced damage, as well more specific ones for ships, such as sea salt contamination via the air inlet.
Currently, there is no modelling framework to quantify PEMFC degradation in a maritime environment specifically. The aim of this work is to propose such a framework, building on knowledge gained from previous modeling studies. It should integrate the additional degradation triggers such as salt contamination. We start out by analyzing existing PEMFC durability models. They are rated based on the coding complexity, computational costs, specificity and the possibility to incorporate both specific
maritime as well as general degradation causes. Thereafter we analyze whether and how the models are validated and verified.
The proposed modeling framework can serve as a blueprint for future maritime PEMFC degradation models. These can facilitate vessel specific case studies, investigations to improve cell and stack design and explorations of altered ship operational profiles. The resulting insights will aid scientists, engineers and ship owners to improve PEMFC lifetime in maritime applications.
Many PEMFC models have been developed and used over three decades. They differ on various levels, from their spatial dimensions – one, two or three dimensional – to which processes are modelled and the detail to which they are described. Our previous review1 shows that numerous processes contribute to degradation in a maritime context. These include more general processes, such as load induced damage, as well more specific ones for ships, such as sea salt contamination via the air inlet.
Currently, there is no modelling framework to quantify PEMFC degradation in a maritime environment specifically. The aim of this work is to propose such a framework, building on knowledge gained from previous modeling studies. It should integrate the additional degradation triggers such as salt contamination. We start out by analyzing existing PEMFC durability models. They are rated based on the coding complexity, computational costs, specificity and the possibility to incorporate both specific
maritime as well as general degradation causes. Thereafter we analyze whether and how the models are validated and verified.
The proposed modeling framework can serve as a blueprint for future maritime PEMFC degradation models. These can facilitate vessel specific case studies, investigations to improve cell and stack design and explorations of altered ship operational profiles. The resulting insights will aid scientists, engineers and ship owners to improve PEMFC lifetime in maritime applications.
Analyze Electrolyzers with EIS and EECs
Selection and interpretation of PEMWE electrical equivalent circuits