A researcher or practitioner can employ a biofilm model to gain insight into what controls the performance of a biofilm process and for optimizing its performance. While a wide range of biofilmmodeling platforms is available, a good strategy is to choose the simplest model that includes sufficient components and processes to address the modeling goal. In most cases, a onedimensional biofilm model provides the best balance, and good choices can range from handcalculation analytical solutions, simple spreadsheets, and numerical-method platforms. What is missing today is clear guidance on how to apply a biofilm model to obtain accurate and meaningful results. Here, we present a five-step framework for good biofilm reactor modeling practice (GBRMP). The first four steps are (1) obtain information on the biofilm reactor system, (2) characterize the influent, (3) choose the plant and biofilm model, and (4) define the conversion processes. Each step demands that the model user understands the important components and processes in the system, one of the main benefits of doing biofilm modeling. The fifth step is to calibrate and validate the model: System-specific model parameters are adjusted within reasonable ranges so that model outputs match actual system performance. Calibration is not a simple 'by the numbers' process, and it requires that the modeler follows a logical hierarchy of steps. Calibration requires that the adjusted parameters remain within realistic ranges and that the calibration process be carried out in an iterative manner. Once each of steps 1 through 5 is completed satisfactorily, the calibrated model can be used for its intended purpose, such as optimizing performance, trouble-shooting poor performance, or gaining deeper understanding of what controls process performance.

Wastewater treatment plants can be significant sources of nitrous oxide (N₂O), a potent greenhouse gas. While our understanding of N₂O emissions from suspended-growth processes has advanced significantly, less is known about emissions from biofilm processes. Biofilms may behave differently due to their substrate gradients and microbial stratification. In this study, we used mathematical modeling to explore the mechanisms of N₂O emissions from nitrifying and denitrifying biofilms. Our ammonia-oxidizing bacteria biofilm model suggests that N₂O emissions from biofilm can be significantly greater than from suspended-growth systems. The driving factor is the diffusion of hydroxylamine, a nitrification intermediate, from the aerobic to the anoxic regions of the biofilm. The presence of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria further increased emissions. For denitrifying biofilms, our results suggest that emissions are generally greater than for suspended-growth systems. However, the magnitude of the difference depends on the bulk dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand, and nitrate concentrations, as well as the biofilm thickness. Overall, the accumulation and diffusion of key intermediates, i.e. hydroxylamine and nitrite, distinguish biofilms from suspended-growth systems. Our research suggests that the mechanisms of N₂O emissions from biofilms are much more complex than suspended-growth systems, and that emissions may be higher in many cases.

Biofilms are complex biostructures that appear on all surfaces that are regularly in contact with water. They are structurally complex, dynamic systems with attributes of primordial multicellular organisms and multifaceted ecosystems. The presence of biofilms may have a negative impact on the performance of various systems, but they can also be used beneficially for the treatment of water (defined herein as potable water, municipal and industrial wastewater, fresh/brackish/salt water bodies, groundwater) as well as in water stream-based biological resource recovery systems. This review addresses the following three topics: (1) biofilm ecology, (2) biofilm reactor technology and design, and (3) biofilm modeling. In so doing, it addresses the processes occurring in the biofilm, and how these affect and are affected by the broader biofilm system. The symphonic application of a suite of biological methods has led to significant advances in the understanding of biofilm ecology. New metabolic pathways, such as anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) or complete ammonium oxidation (comammox) were first observed in biofilm reactors. The functions, properties, and constituents of the biofilm extracellular polymeric substance matrix are somewhat known, but their exact composition and role in the microbial conversion kinetics and biochemical transformations are still to be resolved. Biofilm grown microorganisms may contribute to increased metabolism of micro-pollutants. Several types of biofilm reactors have been used for water treatment, with current focus on moving bed biofilm reactors, integrated fixed-film activated sludge, membrane-supported biofilm reactors, and granular sludge processes. The control and/or beneficial use of biofilms in membrane processes is advancing. Biofilm models have become essential tools for fundamental biofilm research and biofilm reactor engineering and design. At the same time, the divergence between biofilm modeling and biofilm reactor modeling approaches is recognized.