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H.J. de Vries
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1
This paper explores the relation between a city’s character and standardisation activities in that city, taking the case of the Dutch city of Delft. In Delft’s 2000 years of history, and in the current situation, many cases of standards development and use can be found. The analysis shows that these show a huge variety. Several cases go beyond ‘normal,’ and had or have substantial impact. This strong standardisation profile is in line with the city’s character expressed in its branding. However, causal relationships cannot be found. The paper seeks for alternative explanations for the correlations. Future research may deepen this study and replicate it in other cities.
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This paper explores the relation between a city’s character and standardisation activities in that city, taking the case of the Dutch city of Delft. In Delft’s 2000 years of history, and in the current situation, many cases of standards development and use can be found. The analysis shows that these show a huge variety. Several cases go beyond ‘normal,’ and had or have substantial impact. This strong standardisation profile is in line with the city’s character expressed in its branding. However, causal relationships cannot be found. The paper seeks for alternative explanations for the correlations. Future research may deepen this study and replicate it in other cities.
Technological developments such as the Internet of Things, and artificial intelligence result in new innovative systems. In these systems, ICT is integrated in products, services and processes. Interconnectivity gets crucial and standards should facilitate this. New standards complement existing ones and these may originate both from the ICT field and from other fields. These fields have different standardization cultures and often, multiple standards are competing. The question is which standard, if any, will achieve market success. We relate the success factors to the different phases of the technology life cycle. We assess the importance of these factors by using the Best Worst Method. In the discussion section, we argue how the importance of certain factors may change and which new factors pop up in an increasingly globalized and digital world. This should provide a basis for future research on market success of standards in this new context.
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Technological developments such as the Internet of Things, and artificial intelligence result in new innovative systems. In these systems, ICT is integrated in products, services and processes. Interconnectivity gets crucial and standards should facilitate this. New standards complement existing ones and these may originate both from the ICT field and from other fields. These fields have different standardization cultures and often, multiple standards are competing. The question is which standard, if any, will achieve market success. We relate the success factors to the different phases of the technology life cycle. We assess the importance of these factors by using the Best Worst Method. In the discussion section, we argue how the importance of certain factors may change and which new factors pop up in an increasingly globalized and digital world. This should provide a basis for future research on market success of standards in this new context.
Auditing is used to assess whether the requirements laid down in standards are being met. This paper studies the process of auditing quality management systems (QMS) to enhance our understanding of the process and develop a systematic approach. We focus on the information gathering and judgement parts of it. We compare the scarce literature about QMS auditing with the management system auditing standards ISO 19011 and ISO/IEC 17021-1. We incorporate insights from philosophical literature to develop a process model regarding the main steps of reliable auditing: observing reality; recalling memory and understanding the observed reality; contemplating and understanding abstract objects; expressing what is understood; judging: comparing what is understood and concluding about fulfilment of a requirement; and expressing the judgement. The methods described in these two standards are insufficient. Future researchers can use our model in developing theory on conformity assessment. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) may use it to improve its conformity assessment standards.
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Auditing is used to assess whether the requirements laid down in standards are being met. This paper studies the process of auditing quality management systems (QMS) to enhance our understanding of the process and develop a systematic approach. We focus on the information gathering and judgement parts of it. We compare the scarce literature about QMS auditing with the management system auditing standards ISO 19011 and ISO/IEC 17021-1. We incorporate insights from philosophical literature to develop a process model regarding the main steps of reliable auditing: observing reality; recalling memory and understanding the observed reality; contemplating and understanding abstract objects; expressing what is understood; judging: comparing what is understood and concluding about fulfilment of a requirement; and expressing the judgement. The methods described in these two standards are insufficient. Future researchers can use our model in developing theory on conformity assessment. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) may use it to improve its conformity assessment standards.
Many researchers have defined the concept of innovation, without reaching consensus. But in any case an innovation concerns something new or the process of achieving such a thing. Since ‘new’ is a subjective qualification, the concept of innovation is weakly defined. As a consequence, the difference between an innovation and not-an-innovation (‘ordinary change’) stays unclear. This not only hinders the research of innovation and the advancement of innovation theory, but also may lead to costly mismanagement of innovation. To advance the definition of innovation, we distinguish two fundamentally different types of change: the change of the parameters of a system versus the expansion of its dimensions. The first type we identify as ordinary or first-order change and the second type as innovation or second-order change. We explain how our mathematical definition of innovation, combined with social processes of argumentation and discussion, can be operationalized methodically. Using a case of tightening the energy efficiency requirements for newly built houses, a case of business transformation, and a case of decentralization of youth care, we demonstrate how our socio-mathematical definition of innovation helps to study innovation more accurately and to understand the fundamental differences between ordinary change and innovation in their dynamics of planning, acting, and learning. Our socio-mathematical definition positions innovation management next to strategic change management, quality management and standardization management, and is easily applicable for researchers, innovation managers and policy makers.
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Many researchers have defined the concept of innovation, without reaching consensus. But in any case an innovation concerns something new or the process of achieving such a thing. Since ‘new’ is a subjective qualification, the concept of innovation is weakly defined. As a consequence, the difference between an innovation and not-an-innovation (‘ordinary change’) stays unclear. This not only hinders the research of innovation and the advancement of innovation theory, but also may lead to costly mismanagement of innovation. To advance the definition of innovation, we distinguish two fundamentally different types of change: the change of the parameters of a system versus the expansion of its dimensions. The first type we identify as ordinary or first-order change and the second type as innovation or second-order change. We explain how our mathematical definition of innovation, combined with social processes of argumentation and discussion, can be operationalized methodically. Using a case of tightening the energy efficiency requirements for newly built houses, a case of business transformation, and a case of decentralization of youth care, we demonstrate how our socio-mathematical definition of innovation helps to study innovation more accurately and to understand the fundamental differences between ordinary change and innovation in their dynamics of planning, acting, and learning. Our socio-mathematical definition positions innovation management next to strategic change management, quality management and standardization management, and is easily applicable for researchers, innovation managers and policy makers.
Telecommunication systems can only function properly with standards that ensure interoperability. Consequently, these standards shape the systems. However, the European Commission (EC) is concerned that foreign (e.g. Chinese) companies are influencing and shaping European telecommunications through their participation in committees of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). The EC wants ETSI to ban non-European firms from co-deciding about critical standards. This paper discusses the EC’s concerns by examining ETSI’s practices from a historical perspective and discussing the concept of legitimacy. Our findings demonstrate that this ban is unsuitable for reaching the EC’s objectives. We develop an alternative by separating decisions about standards to be used in Europe from ETSI’s standard development process. This way, ETSI can continue to involve companies from China and other countries outside Europe, but there will be an additional step for acceptance of telecommunications standards: Europeans will decide which standards to adopt, using value-based criteria. This approach would address the EC’s concerns much better than the solutions they originally envisioned, while still allowing ETSI to maintain its global relevance. This approach is novel in the literature on standardization. Moreover, this study shows that combining the different forms of legitimacy provides a more comprehensive framework for analyzing standardization.
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Telecommunication systems can only function properly with standards that ensure interoperability. Consequently, these standards shape the systems. However, the European Commission (EC) is concerned that foreign (e.g. Chinese) companies are influencing and shaping European telecommunications through their participation in committees of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). The EC wants ETSI to ban non-European firms from co-deciding about critical standards. This paper discusses the EC’s concerns by examining ETSI’s practices from a historical perspective and discussing the concept of legitimacy. Our findings demonstrate that this ban is unsuitable for reaching the EC’s objectives. We develop an alternative by separating decisions about standards to be used in Europe from ETSI’s standard development process. This way, ETSI can continue to involve companies from China and other countries outside Europe, but there will be an additional step for acceptance of telecommunications standards: Europeans will decide which standards to adopt, using value-based criteria. This approach would address the EC’s concerns much better than the solutions they originally envisioned, while still allowing ETSI to maintain its global relevance. This approach is novel in the literature on standardization. Moreover, this study shows that combining the different forms of legitimacy provides a more comprehensive framework for analyzing standardization.
Standardization
Research Trends, Current Debates, and Interdisciplinarity
Journal article
(2024)
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Filippo Grillo, Paul Moritz Wiegmann, Henk J. de Vries, Rudi Bekkers, Stefano Tasselli, Amin Yousefi, Geerten van de Kaa
Standards are ubiquitous in contemporary society and play a clear role in technological development, organizational functioning, and business success. Standards are very diverse and often boundary crossing in terms of stakeholders and impact, but are such diversity and range reflected by academic studies? We take stock of standardization research over the past decade, considering the full interdisciplinary breadth of this growing field. We use bibliometrics and network analysis to map emergent trends, and conduct an in-depth review of the literature. In doing so, we find that management science, along with economics, is at the core of work on standardization, bridging academic disciplines, and leading theoretical development. Technical disciplines, such as engineering and computer science, supply the largest body of literature, but rarely cross disciplinary boundaries and remain rather isolated. Building on our review, we discuss current debates and controversies and distill four interpretative perspectives on the recent and current developments of standardization research. Finally, we propose a research agenda for standardization research and practice for the years to come.
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Standards are ubiquitous in contemporary society and play a clear role in technological development, organizational functioning, and business success. Standards are very diverse and often boundary crossing in terms of stakeholders and impact, but are such diversity and range reflected by academic studies? We take stock of standardization research over the past decade, considering the full interdisciplinary breadth of this growing field. We use bibliometrics and network analysis to map emergent trends, and conduct an in-depth review of the literature. In doing so, we find that management science, along with economics, is at the core of work on standardization, bridging academic disciplines, and leading theoretical development. Technical disciplines, such as engineering and computer science, supply the largest body of literature, but rarely cross disciplinary boundaries and remain rather isolated. Building on our review, we discuss current debates and controversies and distill four interpretative perspectives on the recent and current developments of standardization research. Finally, we propose a research agenda for standardization research and practice for the years to come.
Working conditions of gig workers on platforms such as Uber, Lyft, and Deliveroo raise concerns due to lack of labor protections, low pay, and precarious working arrangements. The recent Directive proposal by the European Commission on Platform Work (Directive 2021/880) aims to address such concerns. However, it provides guidelines for afterwards repair rather than for the anticipation of recurring problems related to platforms. Network effects, inherent to platform companies, lead to winner-takes-all situations and, next, the disadvantages of monopolistic behavior. Moreover, the profit-driven business models of the platform companies lead to societal disadvantages such as poor labor conditions. Then the network effects and resulting monopolistic situation multiply these negative side effects. While the European Directive represents a step forward, it does not prevent new cases of misbehavior. In this blog we argue that policy makers willing to mitigate negative effects of platforms may learn lessons from the field of standardization — a comprehensive multi-stakeholder approach may anticipate dominance of new platforms and promote a fairer and more transparent economy. To achieve this, a concerted effort from policymakers, academics, industry, and civil society is needed, to ensure that platforms operate in a way that promotes social dialogue between all stakeholders.
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Working conditions of gig workers on platforms such as Uber, Lyft, and Deliveroo raise concerns due to lack of labor protections, low pay, and precarious working arrangements. The recent Directive proposal by the European Commission on Platform Work (Directive 2021/880) aims to address such concerns. However, it provides guidelines for afterwards repair rather than for the anticipation of recurring problems related to platforms. Network effects, inherent to platform companies, lead to winner-takes-all situations and, next, the disadvantages of monopolistic behavior. Moreover, the profit-driven business models of the platform companies lead to societal disadvantages such as poor labor conditions. Then the network effects and resulting monopolistic situation multiply these negative side effects. While the European Directive represents a step forward, it does not prevent new cases of misbehavior. In this blog we argue that policy makers willing to mitigate negative effects of platforms may learn lessons from the field of standardization — a comprehensive multi-stakeholder approach may anticipate dominance of new platforms and promote a fairer and more transparent economy. To achieve this, a concerted effort from policymakers, academics, industry, and civil society is needed, to ensure that platforms operate in a way that promotes social dialogue between all stakeholders.
Scaling Agile Company-Wide
The Organizational Challenge of Combining Agile-Scaling Frameworks and Enterprise Architecture in Service Companies
Many organizations have embraced agile methods. Studies show a trend of large-scale application of agile frameworks company-wide. Emergent architecture design as part of an agile approach is effective at the project level but causes issues when services need to interact seamlessly at the enterprise level. Enterprise architecture (EA) can provide such coherence. Combining the scaling agile methods with EA is challenging. However, such a combination could benefit from the flexibility that agile approaches offer and provide the consistency and long-term focus that EA pursues. This article uses the longitudinal case study research to explore how organizations can effectively govern Agile and EA in large-scale agile transformations. Our case analysis shows that methods for scaling Agile do not provide sufficient guidance to properly handle the transformation from existing EA practices to an Agile EA combination company-wide. We propose how EA can be applied effectively in large-scale agile transformations despite the two seemingly conflicting approaches of Agile and EA. Based on our findings, we propose a conceptual model for future research that incorporates factors that take EA into account in the governance of agile-scaling frameworks. Our findings extend current literature on coordination mechanisms between architects and agile teams in large-scale agile transformations, thereby balancing emergent and intentional architectures.
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Many organizations have embraced agile methods. Studies show a trend of large-scale application of agile frameworks company-wide. Emergent architecture design as part of an agile approach is effective at the project level but causes issues when services need to interact seamlessly at the enterprise level. Enterprise architecture (EA) can provide such coherence. Combining the scaling agile methods with EA is challenging. However, such a combination could benefit from the flexibility that agile approaches offer and provide the consistency and long-term focus that EA pursues. This article uses the longitudinal case study research to explore how organizations can effectively govern Agile and EA in large-scale agile transformations. Our case analysis shows that methods for scaling Agile do not provide sufficient guidance to properly handle the transformation from existing EA practices to an Agile EA combination company-wide. We propose how EA can be applied effectively in large-scale agile transformations despite the two seemingly conflicting approaches of Agile and EA. Based on our findings, we propose a conceptual model for future research that incorporates factors that take EA into account in the governance of agile-scaling frameworks. Our findings extend current literature on coordination mechanisms between architects and agile teams in large-scale agile transformations, thereby balancing emergent and intentional architectures.
A technical standards alliance (TSA) is a collection of firms organized for a common goal: developing, revising, and promoting technical standards. A firm may participate in standardization through one or more TSAs: its TSA network. However, little is known about the influencing factors and their boundary conditions for gaining firm-level benefits from such involvement. This study fills this gap. Drawing on a network perspective on standardization, we examine the effect of the firm's TSA network and its absorptive capacity. Using a sample of 437 Chinese IT and automotive industry firms participating in non-governmental Chinese standardization groups, we find positive impacts of participation. A firm's central position and relationship strength within a TSA network positively affect firm performance, and absorptive capacity contributes to this effect. Environmental uncertainty acts as a moderator in the relationship between absorptive capacity and firm performance. These findings add to the literature on the impacts of standardization and are informative for companies that consider participating in standardization.
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A technical standards alliance (TSA) is a collection of firms organized for a common goal: developing, revising, and promoting technical standards. A firm may participate in standardization through one or more TSAs: its TSA network. However, little is known about the influencing factors and their boundary conditions for gaining firm-level benefits from such involvement. This study fills this gap. Drawing on a network perspective on standardization, we examine the effect of the firm's TSA network and its absorptive capacity. Using a sample of 437 Chinese IT and automotive industry firms participating in non-governmental Chinese standardization groups, we find positive impacts of participation. A firm's central position and relationship strength within a TSA network positively affect firm performance, and absorptive capacity contributes to this effect. Environmental uncertainty acts as a moderator in the relationship between absorptive capacity and firm performance. These findings add to the literature on the impacts of standardization and are informative for companies that consider participating in standardization.
Management system certification signals that the organization meets international standards, which provides a certain confidence in the company. This confidence is in particular needed for exporting companies in developing countries. Because the business world is dominated by men, female leadership might be another reason to have less confidence in a company. Women-led companies may therefore benefit more from certification. Therefore, this study empirically tests the impact of certification on export, and the moderating effect of female leadership. We use data from enterprise surveys conducted by the World Bank in 2013 that include 4111 firms from 25 Central and Eastern European countries in transition. We implement a recursive bivariate probit model and an extensive sensitivity analysis to account for endogeneity issues. Results confirm that certification and export are positively correlated. Firms managed by females benefit more from certification based on international standards than firms managed by men, especially in the service sector. This suggests that certification compensates for the possibly negative connotations of female leadership. Female managers may consider implementing a management system and get it certified, resulting in a competitive advantage in export markets. Our findings provide food for thought for purchase managers–are they free from prejudice?.
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Management system certification signals that the organization meets international standards, which provides a certain confidence in the company. This confidence is in particular needed for exporting companies in developing countries. Because the business world is dominated by men, female leadership might be another reason to have less confidence in a company. Women-led companies may therefore benefit more from certification. Therefore, this study empirically tests the impact of certification on export, and the moderating effect of female leadership. We use data from enterprise surveys conducted by the World Bank in 2013 that include 4111 firms from 25 Central and Eastern European countries in transition. We implement a recursive bivariate probit model and an extensive sensitivity analysis to account for endogeneity issues. Results confirm that certification and export are positively correlated. Firms managed by females benefit more from certification based on international standards than firms managed by men, especially in the service sector. This suggests that certification compensates for the possibly negative connotations of female leadership. Female managers may consider implementing a management system and get it certified, resulting in a competitive advantage in export markets. Our findings provide food for thought for purchase managers–are they free from prejudice?.
Competing Standard-Setting Organizations
A Choice Experiment
Standard-setting organizations (SSOs) establish goal-directed networks for innovators to jointly shape technology and markets through standards. The degree to which this can succeed depends to a large extent on network characteristics, which may differ substantially between SSOs. Many technological fields face intense competition between SSOs. Choosing the right one is thus a key strategic decision for innovators. Simultaneously, SSOs must reflect members’ preferences in their network set-ups and governance. Yet, little is known about these preferences. Based on extant literature, we derive hypotheses about how three themes of network attributes (membership base, rules, transaction costs) and contextual factors drive decision makers’ preferences. We conduct a comprehensive choice experiment with 141 standardization professionals in the Internet of Things field. Based on our data, we provide a more realistic indication of what firms value in SSOs than has been previously available. We also discuss our results’ implications for studying networks in other contexts.
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Standard-setting organizations (SSOs) establish goal-directed networks for innovators to jointly shape technology and markets through standards. The degree to which this can succeed depends to a large extent on network characteristics, which may differ substantially between SSOs. Many technological fields face intense competition between SSOs. Choosing the right one is thus a key strategic decision for innovators. Simultaneously, SSOs must reflect members’ preferences in their network set-ups and governance. Yet, little is known about these preferences. Based on extant literature, we derive hypotheses about how three themes of network attributes (membership base, rules, transaction costs) and contextual factors drive decision makers’ preferences. We conduct a comprehensive choice experiment with 141 standardization professionals in the Internet of Things field. Based on our data, we provide a more realistic indication of what firms value in SSOs than has been previously available. We also discuss our results’ implications for studying networks in other contexts.
Addressing Sustainability in Education About Standardisation
Lessons from the Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University
This book examines education about standardisation in the context of sustainable management. It shows the role of standardisation education in the global economy, and in markets, industries and businesses. The book presents knowledge on standardisation for sustainable management, describes measures that can be taken to stimulate it, and highlights strategies for teaching and disseminating the concept. Subsequently presenting a number of best practices and case studies, the book seeks to align theory and practice. For researchers, this is the first academic publication that interconnects the concepts of sustainability, standardisation and education. For professionals in the area of sustainability it shows that standardisation is an essential instrument for enhancing sustainability for which proper education is needed. For standardisation professionals the book reveals the links to sustainability and it shows not only the importance of education about standardisation but also how this can be organised, and finally, for universities, the book shows that standardisation deserves to be included in the curriculum, and it provides guidance and best practice examples about how this can be done.
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This book examines education about standardisation in the context of sustainable management. It shows the role of standardisation education in the global economy, and in markets, industries and businesses. The book presents knowledge on standardisation for sustainable management, describes measures that can be taken to stimulate it, and highlights strategies for teaching and disseminating the concept. Subsequently presenting a number of best practices and case studies, the book seeks to align theory and practice. For researchers, this is the first academic publication that interconnects the concepts of sustainability, standardisation and education. For professionals in the area of sustainability it shows that standardisation is an essential instrument for enhancing sustainability for which proper education is needed. For standardisation professionals the book reveals the links to sustainability and it shows not only the importance of education about standardisation but also how this can be organised, and finally, for universities, the book shows that standardisation deserves to be included in the curriculum, and it provides guidance and best practice examples about how this can be done.
A natural step in the development of disciplines is that practitioners establish communities to share knowledge and experience, and further develop the field. This chapter presents literature on such Communities of Practice and Networks of Practice, and applies the findings to the field of standardisation. Some of the existing organisations are described. It can be concluded that these unite a limited number of standardisation professionals, often full timers, but most people involved in standardization work are part timers and not organised yet. Establishment of professional communities per standardisation task may help to improve the situation but broader communities of standardization professionals and academic researchers in this field are needed as well.
...
A natural step in the development of disciplines is that practitioners establish communities to share knowledge and experience, and further develop the field. This chapter presents literature on such Communities of Practice and Networks of Practice, and applies the findings to the field of standardisation. Some of the existing organisations are described. It can be concluded that these unite a limited number of standardisation professionals, often full timers, but most people involved in standardization work are part timers and not organised yet. Establishment of professional communities per standardisation task may help to improve the situation but broader communities of standardization professionals and academic researchers in this field are needed as well.
Certification to compensate gender prejudice
Analysis on impact of management system certification on export by companies in Central and Eastern Europe
Purpose: This paper aims to study the function of standardisation in intermodal transport. It identifies where standardisation helps to improve intermodal transport, who is active in intermodal transport standardisation, what types of standards are needed and what the decision-making process and implementation of standards should be like to positively influence the performance of intermodal transportation. Design/methodology/approach: An empirical study is designed to carry out this research project. The empirical study starts with a review of the organisations that are responsible for standardisation and intermodal transport, together with the standards that they have developed, and are developing, so far. It continues with analysing the topics where standardisation helps to improve the performance of intermodal transport. The analysis is based on 12 interviews, followed by desk research, to validate the respondents’ statements. Findings: The results show that intermodal transportation should be distinguished in continental and maritime transport, which require different standards. In maritime transport, the hardware aspects of the system are highly standardised. However, further standardisation of information exchange offers potential to improve the quality of transport. For continental transport, challenges appear in the heterogeneity of infrastructure and loading units used in Europe. For both systems, openness and consensus are main requirements for the development of successful standards. Originality/value: Standards facilitate interoperability, quality and safety of intermodal transportation, which leads to better performance. This has drawn little attention in the literature. This study addresses this gap and focuses on Europe.
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Purpose: This paper aims to study the function of standardisation in intermodal transport. It identifies where standardisation helps to improve intermodal transport, who is active in intermodal transport standardisation, what types of standards are needed and what the decision-making process and implementation of standards should be like to positively influence the performance of intermodal transportation. Design/methodology/approach: An empirical study is designed to carry out this research project. The empirical study starts with a review of the organisations that are responsible for standardisation and intermodal transport, together with the standards that they have developed, and are developing, so far. It continues with analysing the topics where standardisation helps to improve the performance of intermodal transport. The analysis is based on 12 interviews, followed by desk research, to validate the respondents’ statements. Findings: The results show that intermodal transportation should be distinguished in continental and maritime transport, which require different standards. In maritime transport, the hardware aspects of the system are highly standardised. However, further standardisation of information exchange offers potential to improve the quality of transport. For continental transport, challenges appear in the heterogeneity of infrastructure and loading units used in Europe. For both systems, openness and consensus are main requirements for the development of successful standards. Originality/value: Standards facilitate interoperability, quality and safety of intermodal transportation, which leads to better performance. This has drawn little attention in the literature. This study addresses this gap and focuses on Europe.