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Journal article(2025)
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Amir Hossein Kalantari, Yi Shin Lin, Ali Mohammadi, Natasha Merat, Gustav Markkula
Understanding driver–pedestrian interactions at unsignalized locations has gained additional importance due to recent advancements in vehicle automation. Naturalistic observations can only provide correlational data of limited value for understanding and modeling the mechanisms underlying road user interaction. Therefore, controlled studies in virtual reality (VR) are an important complement, but conventional methods can only accommodate a single human participant. Recently, there has been some interest in studying interactions in VR, by means of distributed simulation, involving multiple human participants. However, there is a lack of validation of this method. Here, we provide a validation study, focusing on a distributed vehicle–pedestrian interaction setup, where pairs of one driver and one pedestrian interacted under various kinematic conditions in a connected virtual environment. To test the validity of the distributed simulation, we used a naturalistic dataset collected in the same U.K. city, at similar locations, and compared the observed behavior between the two settings. Our results indicate a good relative validity of the simulator study, where road users showed similar nonverbal communication behavior in both datasets. As an additional means of validation, we also leveraged a set of game theoretic models that were developed based on the simulator studies, and found that when applied to the naturalistic dataset, we obtained similar (although not identical) model selection results. The findings suggest that distributed simulation can also be useful for development of computational models of interaction. Overall, the findings suggest that distributed simulation can be a highly valuable tool for studying and modeling road user interactions.
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Understanding driver–pedestrian interactions at unsignalized locations has gained additional importance due to recent advancements in vehicle automation. Naturalistic observations can only provide correlational data of limited value for understanding and modeling the mechanisms underlying road user interaction. Therefore, controlled studies in virtual reality (VR) are an important complement, but conventional methods can only accommodate a single human participant. Recently, there has been some interest in studying interactions in VR, by means of distributed simulation, involving multiple human participants. However, there is a lack of validation of this method. Here, we provide a validation study, focusing on a distributed vehicle–pedestrian interaction setup, where pairs of one driver and one pedestrian interacted under various kinematic conditions in a connected virtual environment. To test the validity of the distributed simulation, we used a naturalistic dataset collected in the same U.K. city, at similar locations, and compared the observed behavior between the two settings. Our results indicate a good relative validity of the simulator study, where road users showed similar nonverbal communication behavior in both datasets. As an additional means of validation, we also leveraged a set of game theoretic models that were developed based on the simulator studies, and found that when applied to the naturalistic dataset, we obtained similar (although not identical) model selection results. The findings suggest that distributed simulation can also be useful for development of computational models of interaction. Overall, the findings suggest that distributed simulation can be a highly valuable tool for studying and modeling road user interactions.
Journal article(2023)
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Gustav Markkula, Yi-Shin Lin, Aravinda Ramakrishnan Srinivasan, Jac Billington, Matteo Leonetti, Amir Hossein Kalantari, Yue Yang, Yee Mun Lee, Ruth Madigan, Natasha Merat
When humans share space in road traffic, as drivers or as vulnerable road users, they draw on their full range of communicative and interactive capabilities. Much remains unknown about these behaviors, but they need to be captured in models if automated vehicles are to coexist successfully with human road users. Empirical studies of human road user behavior implicate a large number of underlying cognitive mechanisms, which taken together are well beyond the scope of existing computational models. Here, we note that for all of these putative mechanisms, computational theories exist in different subdisciplines of psychology, for more constrained tasks. We demonstrate how these separate theories can be generalized from abstract laboratory paradigms and integrated into a computational framework for modeling human road user interaction, combining Bayesian perception, a theory of mind regarding others’ intentions, behavioral game theory, long-term valuation of action alternatives, and evidence accumulation decision-making. We show that a model with these assumptions—but not simpler versions of the same model—can account for a number of previously unexplained phenomena in naturalistic driver–pedestrian road-crossing interactions, and successfully predicts interaction outcomes in an unseen data set. Our modeling results contribute to demonstrating the real-world value of the theories from which we draw, and address calls in psychology for cumulative theory-building, presenting human road use as a suitable setting for work of this nature. Our findings also underscore the formidable complexity of human interaction in road traffic, with strong implications for the requirements to set on development and testing of vehicle automation.
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When humans share space in road traffic, as drivers or as vulnerable road users, they draw on their full range of communicative and interactive capabilities. Much remains unknown about these behaviors, but they need to be captured in models if automated vehicles are to coexist successfully with human road users. Empirical studies of human road user behavior implicate a large number of underlying cognitive mechanisms, which taken together are well beyond the scope of existing computational models. Here, we note that for all of these putative mechanisms, computational theories exist in different subdisciplines of psychology, for more constrained tasks. We demonstrate how these separate theories can be generalized from abstract laboratory paradigms and integrated into a computational framework for modeling human road user interaction, combining Bayesian perception, a theory of mind regarding others’ intentions, behavioral game theory, long-term valuation of action alternatives, and evidence accumulation decision-making. We show that a model with these assumptions—but not simpler versions of the same model—can account for a number of previously unexplained phenomena in naturalistic driver–pedestrian road-crossing interactions, and successfully predicts interaction outcomes in an unseen data set. Our modeling results contribute to demonstrating the real-world value of the theories from which we draw, and address calls in psychology for cumulative theory-building, presenting human road use as a suitable setting for work of this nature. Our findings also underscore the formidable complexity of human interaction in road traffic, with strong implications for the requirements to set on development and testing of vehicle automation.
