As a first step toward achieving full physics urban weather simulation capabilities within the resident-GPU large-eddy simulation (LES) FastEddy® model, we have implemented and verified/validated a method for explicit representation of building effects. Herein, we extend the immersed body force method (IBFM) from Chan and Leach (2007, https://doi.org/10.1175/2006JAMC1321.1) to (i) be scale independent and (ii) control building surface temperatures. Through a specific drag-like term in the momentum equations, the IBFM is able to enforce essentially zero velocities within the buildings, in turn resulting in a no-slip boundary condition at the building walls. In addition, we propose similar forcing terms in the energy and mass conservation equations that allow an accurate prescription of the building temperature. The extended IBFM is computationally efficient and has the potential to be coupled to building energy models. The IBFM exhibits excellent agreement with laboratory experiments of an array of staggered cubes at a grid spacing of (Formula presented.) mm, demonstrating the applicability of the method beyond the atmospheric scale. In addition, the IBFM is validated at atmospheric scale through simulations of downtown Oklahoma City ((Formula presented.) m) using data collected during the Joint Urban 2003 (JU03) field campaign. Our LES IBFM results for mean wind speed, turbulence kinetic energy, and SF₆ transport and dispersion compare well to observations and produce turbulence spectra that are in good agreement with sonic anemometer data. Statistical performance metrics for the JU03 simulations are within the range of other LES models in the literature.

Two-way feedback occurs between offshore wind and waves. However, the influence of the waves on the wind profile remains understudied, in particular the momentum transfer between the sea surface and the atmosphere. Previous studies showed that for swell waves it is possible to have increasing wind speeds in case of aligned wind–wave directions. However, the opposite is valid for opposed wind–wave directions, where a decrease in wind velocity is observed. Up to now, this behavior has not been included in most numerical models due to the lack of an appropriate parameterization of the resulting effective roughness length. Using an extensive data set of offshore measurements in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, we show that the wave roughness length affecting the wind is indeed dependent on the alignment between the wind and wave directions. Moreover, we propose a new roughness length parameterization, taking into account the dependence on alignment, consisting of an enhanced roughness length for increasing misalignment. Using this new roughness length parameterization in numerical models might facilitate a better representation of offshore wind, which is relevant to many applications including offshore wind energy and climate modeling.