The application of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes in water treatment has rapidly grown over the last few decades thanks to the continuous advancements in both design and operation. However, RO membrane fouling still remains a key challenge. Fouling can cause a decline in membrane permeability, which requires higher operational energy and more frequent membrane cleaning/replacement to maintain stable water production, which eventually results in increased O&M costs. Particulate fouling, due to the deposition of particles and colloids onto RO membranes, is one of the types of fouling persistently experienced in RO systems. Therefore, there is a real need for a reliable method to predict particulate fouling in order to effectively monitor and control the performance of RO systems....

In many developing countries, water demand is increasing while surface- and groundwater resources are threatened by pollution and overexploitation. Hence, a more sustainable approach to water resources management and water treatment is required. In this capacity, bank filtration is a natural treatment process that makes use of the storage and contaminant attenuation capacity of natural soil. However, BF is site-specific and a significant knowledge gap exists regarding the design and management of bank filtration systems, particularly in developing countries. This research aimed to address these gaps and contribute to the transfer of bank filtration to developing countries. This study comprised both column and batch laboratory-scale experiments to determine the effect of environmental variables such as temperature, raw water organic composition and redox conditions on the removal of chemical pollutants such as organic matter, micro-pollutants and heavy metals as well as the mobility of iron, manganese and arsenic under anaerobic conditions. Ultimately, the effectiveness of BF in improving the quality of drinking water was assessed in a case study in Egypt. The study showed that more than 80% of biodegradable organic matter was removed during BF at temperatures between 20 and 30 °C. However, post-treatment is required to remove humic compounds that were enriched during infiltration. Moreover, infiltrating water with a high concentration of humic compounds reduced the removal of heavy metals and promoted the release of metals into the infiltrating water, rendering it more feasible to install BF wells in surface water systems with low levels of organic matter. Moderately hydrophobic organic micropollutants were most persistent and required infiltration times in excess of 30 days for complete elimination, even at high temperatures (>20 °C). Finally, design parameters such as the number of infiltration wells, should be configured to minimise the proportion of polluted groundwater in the pumped water. Overall, this study provides insight into the effectiveness of BF in removing chemical pollutants from surface water and proposes guidelines for the successful application of BF in developing countries where arid conditions and high temperatures prevail.

In the Eastern corridor of the Northern region of Ghana, the presence of high fluoride concentration in the groundwater has made many drilled boreholes unusable for drinking. Little is, however, known about the factors contributing to the occurrence of high fluoride in the groundwater. Fluoride-contaminated groundwater can be treated by adsorption, but is hampered by the lack of suitable adsorbents that are locally available.
Based on principal component analysis, and saturation index calculations, this thesis highlights that, the predominant mechanisms controlling the fluoride enrichment in the groundwater probably include calcite precipitation and Na/Ca exchange processes, both of which deplete Ca from the groundwater, and promote dissolution of fluorite. The mechanisms also include F-/OH- anion exchange as well as evapotranspiration, which concentrate fluoride ions, hence increasing its concentration in the groundwater. Spatial mapping showed that the high-fluoride groundwaters occur predominantly in the Saboba, Cheriponi and Yendi districts in the Northern region of Ghana.
The thesis further highlights that, modifying the surface properties of locally available materials by aluminium coating, is a very promising approach to develop a novel fluoride adsorbent. Aluminium oxide coated media reduced fluoride in water from 5. 0 ± 0.2 mg/L to ≤ 1.5 mg/L (WHO guideline), in both batch and continuous flow column experiments in the laboratory. Kinetic and isotherm adsorption modelling, thermodynamic calculations, as well as Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman spectroscopy studies, suggest the mechanism of fluoride adsorption onto aluminium oxide coated media involved both physisorption and chemisorption processes.
Field testing in Northern Ghana showed that the adsorbent is also capable of treating fluoride-contaminated groundwater in field conditions. The adsorbent also showed good regeneration potential making it a promising defluoridation adsorbent in practical applications in developing countries.

Water resources in tourist islands have been severely threatened, especially in the Galápagos Islands, where the increased local population has generated attractive income from the tourist services. In addition, the data regarding water supply and demand are scarce. This study investigates water supply and demand in Santa Cruz, the most populated island of Galápagos. The research encompasses a thorough assessment of the water supply crisis, as well as the quantification of water demand from different categories (domestic, tourist, restaurants and laundries) through surveys, in the absence of water metering. Also, specific water demand was assessed by installing 18 water meters. The results yield a wide range of water consumption, questioning the current assumption of water scarcity. Furthermore, a prognosis of water supply and demand was carried out, and also several intervention strategies were proposed such as rainwater harvesting, greywater recycling, leakage reduction, water meter installation, water demand reduction, as well as seawater desalination to cope with the future population growth. Due to the fragility of the ecosystem, these strategies were assessed through a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, considering environmental, technical, economic and social aspects, as well as relevant stakeholders’ perspectives. finally, the water supply network of Puerto Ayora was evaluated in order to understand the need of the current intermittent supply regime. A methodology was developed to estimate the overflow of the domestic roof tanks (a common incidence amongst local population). The results question the practicality of individual household storage. The final results show that the current situation in terms of the lack of water quantity may not be real, as it has been thought for the last decades. The water issues refer more importantly to the water quality, as well as to the lack of proper water management practices.