Plastic materials, such as PVC and HDPE, have become dominant construction materials for sewer systems, mainly due to their reputed chemical resistance. Nonetheless, plastic sewer pipes have operated for decades in a hostile environment, raising concern among sewer managers over the longevity of their drainage systems. Therefore, the main aim of this research was to expand the knowledge about the ageing and failure mechanisms of plastic (especially PVC) sewer pipes and thereby contribute to more efficient sewer management. This research was conducted in three main parts, each part being based on the findings of the previous one. The first step was a literature study into ageing of PVC pipes and an analysis of inspection data from four Dutch municipalities. This resulted in an interesting discrepancy: although the literature indicates that PVC is a durable material with a theoretical lifespan of at least 100 years, the inspection images show that PVC pipes show numerous defects even shortly after installation and that the number of defects increases over time. This discrepancy formed the basis for the second step in this research: the excavation and extensive testing of PVC pipes with defects found in practice through inspections in order to determine the cause of the defects. The main causes of failure were found to be low-quality installation and excavation activities in the direct vicinity of the pipes. However, testing also showed that PVC ages physically, which means that the pipe material gradually becomes more brittle. This last aspect formed the basis for the third part of this research, the development of a non-destructive vibro-acoustic technique that can estimate the physical ageing of plastic pipes in practical conditions.

A substantial part of urban surfaces is to some extent impermeable. Rainfall on these areas turns into runoff, which mobilises solids present on these surfaces. This runoff is removed from urban built areas by different type of drainage systems via gully pots. The objective of a gully pot is twofold, namely 1) to convey runoff to the drainage system with minimal hydraulic losses, while 2) to remove entrained solids to protect the downstream system. The continuous removal of suspended solids results in a growing sediment bed in the gully pot. This sediment bed can eventually reduce the hydraulic capacity of the gully pot and increase the probability of urban flooding due to rainfall. The increasing sediment bed also reduces the removal efficiency, which implies that more solids are transported to the downstream drainage system. Therefore, the objective of this study is to quantify the related processes, which are the build-up of solids on the street, the transport of solids to gully pots, and the removal of solids in gully pots. Which would assist the decision of the optimal cleaning interval of the sand trap. Four research questions have been formulated to meet the study objective:
1. What is the solids loading to gully pots in terms of mass and composition?
2. Does street sweeping reduce the solids loading to gully pots?
3. What is the removal efficiency of solids of a gully pot?
4. How do the in-gully-pot hydraulics influence the removal efficiency?

Domestic wastewater streams from households implemented with source separation, vacuum toilets, and food waste disposers are highly concentrated with respect to the total suspended solids. The concentrated domestic slurries (CDS), which generally consist of faecal matter, urine, ground kitchen waste (GKW) and water, need to be transported from the point of collection to its treatment. In order to design a transportation systems to convey CDS, its flow characteristics must be known. The objective of this thesis is to establish the flow characteristics of CDS that supports the design of its transportation system with pressurised pipelines. CDS is characterised as a non-Newtonian fluid with respect to its rheology. It has a shear-thinning property with a yield stress. However, at low concentrations it behaves as a Newtonian fluid, its non-Newtonian properties are only physically meaningful above a concentration of 2.0 % TSS (wt./wt.). The rheology of CDS is represented using a Herschel-Bulkley model, the parameters of which are a function of TSS concentration which describes the influence of concentration changes. The yield-stress follows a power law function with concentration and is significant only above a concentration of 2.0 % TSS (wt./wt.). The consistency index follows an exponential behaviour with the concentration, which tends towards the viscosity of water at low TSS concentration. The behaviour index follows an inverse logarithmic function decreasing from 1, and this change is significant only above a TSS concentration of 2.6 % (wt./wt.). The temperature of the slurry also influence the rheology of CDS. The influence of temperature is represented using an Arrhenius type equation with respect to the apparent viscosity. On the other hand, the influence of installing food waste disposers is reflected on the change in the overall particle size distribution (PSD) of the slurry, where an increase in the effective diameter of the particle shows an increase in the viscosity of the slurry. The pressure losses incurred in the transport of non-Newtonian slurries, including CDS, in pressurised pipelines are well represented using the Slatter transport model. The pressure loses are very much impacted by the rheological characteristics of the fluid. The pressure losses incurred increase with the increase in TSS concentration, but with the onset of non-Newtonian behaviour, the yield-stress and shear-thinning behaviour, provide some damping to the pressure losses particularly in the turbulent flow regime. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs as a multi-stage process starting with the occurrence of puffs, and then to slugs and both together. The Slatter Reynolds number, provides good prediction of the transition to turbulence compared to the other available models. To conclude, a functional design of a pressurised pipeline transport system for CDS would have to meet the pressure losses estimated using the rheology of CDS at a certain concentration of TSS and temperature of the slurry.

Sewer assets face a great challenge for being underground assets and for experiencing constant deterioration and aging. Reactive decisions are no longer technically nor economically viable, and hence asset managers are migrating to the implementation of proactive strategies. Despite this, managers are making decisions that are poorly justified, based mostly in intuition. This is why it is important to improve the means to implement a more objective and justified proactive approach. Risk-based decisions are a proactive strategy that may help the prioritisation and optimisation Sewer assets face a great challenge for being underground assets and for experiencing constant deterioration and aging. Reactive decisions are no longer technically nor economically viable, and hence asset managers are migrating to the implementation of proactive strategies. Despite this, managers are making decisions that are poorly justified, based mostly in intuition. This is why it is important to improve the means to implement a more objective and justified proactive approach. Risk-based decisions are a proactive strategy that may help the prioritisation and optimisation of maintenance and inspection strategies. It requires for its implementation the estimation of probabilities of failure and their consequences. In this thesis, the analysis is oriented on the failure probabilities on sewer systems, especially on understanding the influences of different characteristics of the pipe (explanatory variables) on these probabilities. The outcome of the thesis answers the following research question: “What is the influence of different characteristics on the probability of failure of the sewer pipes?” Two sub-questions were stated to guide the research and help answering the main research question: 1.What defects can lead to sewer structural failure? 2.What physical characteristics make sewer pipes more prone to fail/deteriorate? For the analysis the Dutch municipalities of Breda and Almere facilitated the results of several years of CCTV inspections of their sewers. Due to the lack of availability of collapse records, this study considered a proxy of collapse, which is loss of watertightness on the pipes. Furthermore, defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness are used as a proxy of the loss of watertightness on a pipe. Defects are obtained from the CCTV reports. The first sub-question was answered based on the proxy failure under study. It was found in the literature review ten defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness, which were classified according to the coding of the standard NEN 3399. These defects are: cracks (BAB), break (BAC), defective connection (BAH), intruding sealing material (BAI), displaced joint (BAJ), porous pipe (BAN), soil visible through defect (BAO), void visible through defect (BAP), infiltration (BBF) and exfiltration (BBG). The second sub-question was answered based on some explanatory variables that were available in the dataset of the inspections, which included: sewer system type, materials, shape, diameter, length, and pipe’s above ground material. To answer this question, a descriptive statistical analysis and two survival methods were implemented: a non-parametric and a semi-parametric model. The non-parametric model consists of an extended version of the Nelson-Aalen estimator of the cumulative hazard (ENE) and its derivative the Extended survival estimator (ESE). Implementing ESE, each characteristic was analysed using the aggregate information of the defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness, and each defect individually. This was done to identify the influence in the failure probabilities (the probabilities of occurrence of defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness). The semi-parametric model that was used is the Cox proportional hazard function, used to estimate the risk ratio associated with one unit increase in one of the characteristics under study. Results of the ESE model showed that: The defects displaced joint (BAJ), infiltration (BBF) and defective connection (BAH), are the ones that have more incidence on the loss of watertightness for the two municipalities. Based on the information of aggregate defects it was observed for both municipalities that the median survival probability is past 14 years. Also, the analysis showed that stormwater sewers have a lower survival probability than foulwater sewers, that PVC pipes have a higher survival probability than concrete pipes, and that shorter pipes have a higher survival probability than longer pipes. In the case of the diameters, for the aggregate defects and defects displaced joint (BAJ) and defective connection (BAH), smaller diameters have a higher survival probability than larger ones. But this tendency is the other way around for defects like cracks (BAB), break (BAC) and porous pipes (BAN), where the diameter has a higher survival probability when are larger than when they are smaller. Characteristics shape and above ground material were only analysed for Breda. It was observed that egg-shaped pipes have a lower survival probability than circular shapes, and that pipes with green fields and floor tiles above them have a lower survival probability than pipes that have above asphalt and pavement. For both municipalities, the results of ESE showed that material is that characteristic that influences the most the probabilities of failure. Results of the Cox proportional model showed that: Almere’s results met the proportionality assumption and showed that the characteristics sewer system type and length are the one that influences the most the failure probabilities. Breda’s data is no appropriate to be used with this model, as it does not meet the proportionality assumption. Recommendations of analysing Breda with an extended Cox are given, as this version of the model allows to use time-dependent variables. of maintenance and inspection strategies. It requires for its implementation the estimation of probabilities of failure and their consequences. In this thesis, the analysis is oriented on the failure probabilities on sewer systems, especially on understanding the influences of different characteristics of the pipe (explanatory variables) on these probabilities. The outcome of the thesis answers the following research question: “What is the influence of different characteristics on the probability of failure of the sewer pipes?” Two sub-questions were stated to guide the research and help answering the main research question: 1.What defects can lead to sewer structural failure? 2.What physical characteristics make sewer pipes more prone to fail/deteriorate? For the analysis the Dutch municipalities of Breda and Almere facilitated the results of several years of CCTV inspections of their sewers.
Due to the lack of availability of collapse records, this study considered a proxy of collapse, which is loss of watertightness on the pipes. Furthermore, defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness are used as a proxy of the loss of watertightness on a pipe. Defects are obtained from the CCTV reports.
The first sub-question was answered based on the proxy failure under study. It was found in the literature review ten defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness, which were classified according to the coding of the standard NEN 3399. These defects are: cracks (BAB), break (BAC), defective connection (BAH), intruding sealing material (BAI), displaced joint (BAJ), porous pipe (BAN), soil visible through defect (BAO), void visible through defect (BAP), infiltration (BBF) and exfiltration (BBG).
The second sub-question was answered based on some explanatory variables that were available in the dataset of the inspections, which included: sewer system type, materials, shape, diameter, length, and pipe’s above ground material.
To answer this question, a descriptive statistical analysis and two survival methods were implemented: a non-parametric and a semi-parametric model.
The non-parametric model consists of an extended version of the Nelson-Aalen estimator of the cumulative hazard (ENE) and its derivative the Extended survival estimator (ESE). Implementing ESE, each characteristic was analysed using the aggregate information of the defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness, and each defect individually. This was done to identify the influence in the failure probabilities (the probabilities of occurrence of defects that potentially cause loss of watertightness).
The semi-parametric model that was used is the Cox proportional hazard function, used to estimate the risk ratio associated with one unit increase in one of the characteristics under study.
Results of the ESE model showed that:
The defects displaced joint (BAJ), infiltration (BBF) and defective connection (BAH), are the ones that have more incidence on the loss of watertightness for the two municipalities.
Based on the information of aggregate defects it was observed for both municipalities that the median survival probability is past 14 years.
Also, the analysis showed that stormwater sewers have a lower survival probability than foulwater sewers, that PVC pipes have a higher survival probability than concrete pipes, and that shorter pipes have a higher survival probability than longer pipes. In the case of the diameters, for the aggregate defects and defects displaced joint (BAJ) and defective connection (BAH), smaller diameters have a higher survival probability than larger ones. But this tendency is the other way around for defects like cracks (BAB), break (BAC) and porous pipes (BAN), where the diameter has a higher survival probability when are larger than when they are smaller.
Characteristics shape and above ground material were only analysed for Breda. It was observed that egg-shaped pipes have a lower survival probability than circular shapes, and that pipes with green fields and floor tiles above them have a lower survival probability than pipes that have above asphalt and pavement.
For both municipalities, the results of ESE showed that material is that characteristic that influences the most the probabilities of failure.
Results of the Cox proportional model showed that: Almere’s results met the proportionality assumption and showed that the characteristics sewer system type and length are the one that influences the most the failure probabilities. Breda’s data is no appropriate to be used with this model, as it does not meet the proportionality assumption. Recommendations of analysing Breda with an extended Cox are given, as this version of the model allows to use time-dependent variables.