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Augmented reality interfaces for pedestrian-vehicle interactions: An online study

Tabone, W. (author), Happee, R. (author), García, Jorge (author), Lee, Yee Mun (author), Lupetti, M.L. (author), Merat, Natasha (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

Augmented Reality (AR) technology could be utilised to assist pedestrians in navigating safely through traffic. However, whether potential users would understand and use such AR solutions is currently unknown. Nine novel AR interfaces for pedestrian-vehicle communication, previously developed using an experience-based design method, were...

journal article 2023

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Vulnerable road users and the coming wave of automated vehicles: Expert perspectives

Tabone, W. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Ackermann, Claudia (author), Bärgman, Jonas (author), Baumann, Martin (author), Deb, Shuchisnigdha (author), Emmenegger, Colleen (author), Habibovic, Azra (author), Hagenzieker, Marjan (author), Hancock, P. A. (author), Happee, R. (author), Krems, Josef (author), Lee, John D. (author), Martens, Marieke (author), Merat, Natasha (author), Norman, Don (author), Sheridan, Thomas B. (author), Stanton, Neville A. (author)

Automated driving research over the past decades has mostly focused on highway environments. Recent technological developments have drawn researchers and manufacturers to look ahead at introducing automated driving in cities. The current position paper examines this challenge from the viewpoint of scientific experts. Sixteen Human Factors...

journal article 2021

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Redesigning Today’s Driving Automation Toward Adaptive Backup Control With Context-Based and Invisible Interfaces

Cabrall, C.D.D. (author), Stapel, J.C.J. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

Objective: We investigated a driver monitoring system (DMS) designed to adaptively back up distracted drivers with automated driving. Background: Humans are likely inadequate for supervising today’s on-road driving automation. Conversely, backup concepts can use eye-tracker DMS to retain the human as the primary driver and use computerized...

journal article 2020

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Emergency braking at intersections: A motion-base motorcycle simulator study

Kovacsova, N. (author), Grottoli, M. (author), Celiberti, Francesco (author), Lemmens, Yves (author), Happee, R. (author), Hagenzieker, Marjan (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

Powered two-wheeler riders are frequently involved in crashes at intersections because an approaching car driver fails to give right of way. This simulator study aimed to investigate how riders perform an emergency braking maneuver in response to an oncoming car and, second, whether longitudinal motion cues provided by a motion platform...

journal article 2020

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Take over! A video-clip study measuring attention, situation awareness, and decision-making in the face of an impending hazard

Lu, Z. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

In highly automated driving, drivers occasionally need to take over control of the car due to limitations of the automated driving system. Research has shown that visually distracted drivers need about 7 s to regain situation awareness (SA). However, it is unknown whether the presence of a hazard affects SA. In the present experiment, 32...

journal article 2020

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Prediction of effort and eye movement measures from driving scene components

Cabrall, C.D.D. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

For transitions of control in automated vehicles, driver monitoring systems (DMS) may need to discern task difficulty and driver preparedness. Such DMS require models that relate driving scene components, driver effort, and eye measurements. Across two sessions, 15 participants enacted receiving control within 60 randomly ordered dashcam videos ...

journal article 2020

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Takeover Quality: Assessing the Effects of Time Budget and Traffic Density with the Help of a Trajectory-Planning Method

Doubek, F.H. (author), Loosveld, Erik (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

In highly automated driving, the driver can engage in a nondriving task but sometimes has to take over control. We argue that current takeover quality measures, such as the maximum longitudinal acceleration, are insufficient because they ignore the criticality of the scenario. This paper proposes a novel method of quantifying how well the...

journal article 2020

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What impressions do users have after a ride in an automated shuttle? An interview study

Nordhoff, S. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Payre, William (author), van Arem, B. (author), Happee, R. (author)

In the future, automated shuttles may provide on-demand transport and serve as feeders to public transport systems. However, automated shuttles will only become widely used if they are accepted by the public. This paper presents results of an interview study with 30 users of an automated shuttle on the EUREF (Europäisches Energieforum) campus in...

journal article 2019

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How do drivers merge heavy goods vehicles onto freeways?: A semi-structured interview unveiling needs for communication and support

Dreger, F.A. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Happee, R. (author)

Freeway merging of heavy goods vehicles (HGV) is a safety–critical manoeuvre. However, at present, it is largely unknown how HGV drivers perceive and execute the merging manoeuvre, and how current advanced driver support and automation systems (ADAS) contribute. We performed semi-structured in-depth interviews with 15 HGV drivers to assess...

journal article 2019

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How Do eHMIs Affect Pedestrians’ Crossing Behavior? A Study Using a Head-Mounted Display Combined with a Motion Suit

Kooijman, L. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

In future traffic, automated vehicles may be equipped with external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs) that can communicate with pedestrians. Previous research suggests that, during first encounters, pedestrians regard text-based eHMIs as clearer than light-based eHMIs. However, in much of the previous research, pedestrians were asked to imagine...

journal article 2019

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Will vehicle data be shared to address the how, where, and who of traffic accidents?

de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Dodou, D. (author), Happee, R. (author), Eisma, Y.B. (author)

Vehicles are increasingly equipped with sensors that measure the state of the vehicle and surrounding road users. Although most of these sensor data currently remain local to the vehicle, the data could be shared with the aim to improve road safety. We postulate that there is a range of scenarios regarding data sharing, with two extremes: In...

journal article 2019

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How to keep drivers engaged while supervising driving automation? A literature survey and categorisation of six solution areas

Cabrall, C.D.D. (author), Eriksson, Alexander (author), Dreger, F.A. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

This work aimed to organise recommendations for keeping people engaged during human supervision of driving automation, encouraging a safe and acceptable introduction of automated driving systems. First, heuristic knowledge of human factors, ergonomics, and psychological theory was used to propose solution areas to human supervisory control...

journal article 2019

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Beyond mere take-over requests: The effects of monitoring requests on driver attention, take-over performance, and acceptance

Lu, Z. (author), Zhang, B. (author), Feldhütter, A. (author), Happee, R. (author), Martens, M. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

In conditionally automated driving, drivers do not have to monitor the road, whereas in partially automated driving, drivers have to monitor the road permanently. We evaluated a dynamic allocation of monitoring tasks to human and automation by providing a monitoring request (MR) before a possible take-over request (TOR), with the aim to...

journal article 2019

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External human-machine interfaces on automated vehicles: Effects on pedestrian crossing decisions

de Clercq, Koen (author), Dietrich, Andre (author), Nuñez Velasco, J.P. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Happee, R. (author)

Objective: In this article, we investigated the effects of external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs) on pedestrians’ crossing intentions. Background: Literature suggests that the safety (i.e., not crossing when unsafe) and efficiency (i.e., crossing when safe) of pedestrians’ interactions with automated vehicles could increase if automated...

journal article 2019

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Determinants of take-over time from automated driving: A meta-analysis of 129 studies

Zhang, Bo (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Varotto, S.F. (author), Happee, R. (author), Martens, Marieke (author)

An important question in automated driving research is how quickly drivers take over control of the vehicle in response to a critical event or a take-over request. Although a large number of studies have been performed, results vary strongly. In this study, we investigated mean take-over times from 129 studies with SAE level 2 automation or...

journal article 2019

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User acceptance of automated shuttles in Berlin-Schöneberg: A questionnaire study

Nordhoff, S. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Madigan, Ruth (author), Merat, Natasha (author), van Arem, B. (author), Happee, R. (author)

Automated shuttles are now in a prototyping phase in several research projects. However, there is still a paucity of knowledge on the acceptance of these shuttles. This paper presents the results of a questionnaire study among individuals (n = 384) who physically experienced an automated shuttle on an office campus in Berlin-Schöneberg. The...

journal article 2018

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Validity and reliability of naturalistic driving scene categorization Judgments from crowdsourcing

Cabrall, C.D.D. (author), Lu, Z. (author), Kyriakidis, M. (author), Manca, L. (author), Dijksterhuis, C. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

A common challenge with processing naturalistic driving data is that humans may need to categorize great volumes of recorded visual information. By means of the online platform CrowdFlower, we investigated the potential of crowdsourcing to categorize driving scene features (i.e., presence of other road users, straight road segments, etc.) at...

journal article 2018

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Acceptance of driverless vehicles: Results from a large cross-national questionnaire study

Nordhoff, S. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Kyriakidis, M. (author), van Arem, B. (author), Happee, R. (author)

Shuttles that operate without an onboard driver are currently being developed and tested in various projects worldwide. However, there is a paucity of knowledge on the determinants of acceptance of driverless shuttles in large cross-national samples. In the present study, we surveyed 10,000 respondents on the acceptance of driverless vehicles...

journal article 2018

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The effect of steering-system linearity, simulator motion, and truck driving experience on steering of an articulated tractor-semitrailer combination

Shyrokau, B. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author), Stroosma, O. (author), Dijksterhuis, C. (author), Loof, Jan (author), van Paassen, M.M. (author), Happee, R. (author)

Steering systems of trucks consist of many linkages, which introduce nonlinearities that may negatively affect steering performance. Nowadays, it is possible to equip steering systems with actuators that provide artificial steering characteristics. However, before new steering systems are deployed in real vehicles, evaluation in a safe and...

journal article 2018

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Differences between racing and non-racing drivers: A simulator study using eye-tracking

van Leeuwen, P.M. (author), de Groot, S. (author), Happee, R. (author), de Winter, J.C.F. (author)

Motorsport has developed into a professional international competition. However, limited research is available on the perceptual and cognitive skills of racing drivers. By means of a racing simulator, we compared the driving performance of seven racing drivers with ten non-racing drivers. Participants were tasked to drive the fastest possible...

journal article 2017