As the offer of digital services in transport expands, understanding users’ digital engagement and how it developed over time is important to make informed policy decisions. In particular, we lack an understanding of how both PT (public transport) and car users access and engage with digital technologies and perceive them to be necessary to travel. This article aims at bridging this gap, using a 2022 survey of representative samples from both populations in the Netherlands. There is clear evidence of travellers getting more used to digital technologies over time. In 2022, at most 80% of car and PT users relied at least from time to time on their smartphone to look for travel information. As expected, higher digital skills correlate positively with the likelihood of using smartphone-based travel information. It is worth noting that PT users report higher digital skills than car users, while these samples do not differ significantly in terms of age and education levels. As such, low (perceived) digital skills might be a barrier to switching from the car to public transport. Almost 75% of car and PT users think that travelling is more difficult nowadays without a smartphone, demonstrating a radical shift in societal expectations within a decade and a half. Alternatives like public information displays exist and are still used by the majority, but traditional communication channels are not deemed sufficient anymore to travel worry-free. These perceptions can contribute to shaping reality and may put those with a lower digital access at a disadvantage.

Policies to increase the amount of time people spend working from home were widely used during the COVID-19 pandemic. Since research suggests that the resulting increase in working from home will outlast these policies themselves, policymakers want to understand the relations between working from home and travel behaviour. We apply longitudinal modelling techniques to estimate the relations between working from home and travel behaviour using panel data from the Netherlands Mobility Panel spanning the years 2017 through 2021. This allows us to separate between-persons and within-persons relations and effects and to see whether these effects changed during the pandemic. We find a negative effect of working from home on commute travel time both before and during the pandemic and a positive effect on leisure travel time only before the pandemic. The sizes of these effects remained roughly similar during the pandemic, although the extent to which working from home affected commute travel time increased during the pandemic. The net effect of working from home on travel time is negative, indicating that working from home policies could be used to reduce travel time. The results also show that some of the relationships between working from home and travel behaviour have changed during the pandemic. As a result, policymakers and transport operators should be careful when estimating future travel demand based on extrapolations of relationships found only before or during the pandemic.

Digitalisation in public transport has become pervasive over the past decade, especially in urban areas. While it benefits many, it also leaves some behind. Previous research shows that older adults, people with a lower education level, people with impairments and people with a migration background are more likely to be negatively impacted by digitalisation in transport services. In order to uncover mechanisms behind digital inequality in public transport, we interviewed 39 people belonging to these groups. They experience difficulties due to low digital skills, not using digital technologies on-the-go, not possessing the right devices and due to a complex design of technologies, among others. Many participants reap some benefits of digitalisation though. In fact, individuals can experience benefits on one aspect and difficulties on another. Nevertheless, experiencing difficulties with digitalisation does not necessarily equal to exclusion from public transport thanks to coping strategies like support from one's social network. Still, many coping strategies come with pitfalls such as hidden work and costs. Digital technologies facilitate a self-service approach that paradoxically makes some people more dependent on others. This study can support practitioners and researchers in developing a better understanding of the (sometimes insidious) consequences of technological innovations on individuals.

As digitalisation is making its way into public transport (PT) services, policy approaches to ensure that such services remain inclusive are at best fragmented, at worst inexistant. This study pieces together existing initiatives and lessons learnt in the transport sector itself, and takes inspiration from other fields with a more mature understanding of digitalisation. We interviewed twenty-two experts working either in the PT sector or in other sectors such as healthcare and public administration to present an overview of possible measures to foster inclusion in PT in the digital era. We used both triangulation and a two-step respondent validation process to improve results’ trustworthiness. We conclude that there is no one-size-fits-all, but a series of complementary strategies to address digital inequality. A focus on an inclusive design from the start, courses, showing the added value of digital tools, specialist products and non-digital alternatives are building blocks to foster a more inclusive PT system in the era of digitalisation. The role of the public transport staff ought not to be underestimated in digital transformations. Importantly, securing the issue of unequal access to public transport due to digitalisation at a decision-making level is essential. Nevertheless, there is only so much that the transport sector can do. Tackling more systemic issues that often underlie digital barriers like poverty and low literacy is crucially relevant. While the present study was conducted in the Netherlands, the presented measures can be applied in other countries by stakeholders working on inclusive digital transformations in (public) transport services.