Agriculture is of huge economic significance in The Netherlands where the provision of real-time, reliable information on crop development is essential to support the transition towards precision agriculture. Optical imagery can provide invaluable insights into crop growth and development but is severely hampered by cloud cover. This case study in the Flevopolder illustrates the potential value of Sentinel-1 for monitoring five key crops in The Netherlands, namely sugar beet, potato, maize, wheat and English rye grass. Time series of radar backscatter from the European Space Agency's Sentinel-1 Mission are analyzed and compared to ground measurements including phenological stage and height. Temporal variations in backscatter data reflect changes in water content and structure associated with phenological development. Emergence and closure dates are estimated from the backscatter time series and validated against a photo archive. Coherence data are compared to Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and ground data, illustrating that the sudden increase in coherence is a useful indicator of harvest. The results presented here demonstrate that Sentinel-1 data have significant potential value to monitor growth and development of key Dutch crops. Furthermore, the guaranteed availability of Sentinel-1 imagery in clouded conditions ensures the reliability of data to meet the monitoring needs of farmers, food producers and regulatory bodies.@en

The presence, duration, and amount of surface canopy water (SCW) is important in microwave remote sensing for agricultural applications. Our current understanding of the effect of SCW on total backscatter and the underlying mechanisms is limited. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of SCW on backscatter as a function of frequency and polarization, and to understand the underlying mechanisms. For this purpose, the radiative transfer model developed at the Tor Vergata University was used to simulate the total backscatter at L-, C-, and X-band. First, simulations from the standard Tor Vergata model were compared to L-band observations. Then, two additional implementations of the model were developed to account for the effect of SCW and the presence of water on the soil surface on radar backscatter. Representing SCW by the inclusion of additional water in the vegetation leads to an increase in vegetation volume scattering and a reduction in the contribution from double bounce and direct scattering from the ground. This increases total backscatter, particularly at lower frequencies. Results suggest that the difference between backscatter in the presence and absence of SCW can be up to around 2.5 dB in L-band and likely less at higher frequencies. The effect of water on the canopy (SCW) reaches its maximum during the mid and late season as the crop reached its maximum biomass. The influence of dew on the reflectivity of the soil surface resulted in a difference of up to 3.8 dB between backscatter in the presence and absence of SCW. In particular, at low frequencies and low vegetation cover, the presence of water on the soil surface needs to be taken into account to correctly capture the sub-daily dynamics in backscatter. The findings of this study are relevant for current and future SAR missions including Sentinel-1, ROSE-L, NISAR, SAOCOM, ALOS, CosmoSkyMed, TerraSAR-X, TanDEM-X and constellations such as those of ICEYE, and Capella which have dawn/dusk overpasses or multiple overpasses per day.@en

For a good interpretation of radar backscatter sensitivity to vegetation water dynamics, we need to know which parts of the vegetation layer control that backscatter. However, backscatter sensitivity to different depths in the canopy is poorly understood. This is partly caused by a lack of observational data to describe the vertical moisture distribution. In this study, we aimed to understand the sensitivity of L-band backscatter to water at different heights in a corn canopy. We studied changes in the contribution of different vertical layers to total backscatter throughout the season and during the day. Using detailed field measurements, we first determined the vertical distribution of moisture in the plants, and its seasonal and sub-daily variation. Then, these measurements were used to define different sublayers in a multi-layer water cloud model (WCM). To calibrate and validate the WCM, we used hyper-temporal tower-based polarimetric L-band scatterometer data. WCM simulations showed a shift in dominant scattering from the lowest 50 cm to 50–100 cm during the season in all polarizations, mainly due to leaf and ear growth and corresponding scattering and attenuation. Dew and rainfall interception raised sensitivity to upper parts of the canopy and lowered sensitivity to lower parts. The methodology and results presented in this study demonstrate the importance of the vertical moisture distribution on scattering from vegetation. These insights are essential to avoid misinterpretation and spurious artefacts during retrieval of soil moisture and vegetation parameters.@en

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of diurnal variation in internal and surface canopy water on L-band backscatter in the context of the influence of overpass time on agricultural applications. A unique and intensive dataset was collected during a full growing season of corn in Florida, USA in 2018. L-band data was collected by using a fully polarized scatterometer mounted on a crane. In order to measure internal vegetation water distribution and dry biomass, pre-dawn destructive sampling was conducted three times a week for a full growing season. In addition, soil moisture, meteorological, dew, and interception data were measured every 15 minutes for the entire growing season. Results demonstrate that the presence of surface canopy water and diurnal internal water dynamics can each affect the radar backscatter up to 3–4 dB. The surface canopy water also affects the relationship between radar and crop biophysical variables. In corn, the spearman rank correlation between backscatter and biophysical variables is, on average, about 0.2 higher for dry vegetation compared to wet vegetation. The results highlight the possible influence of overpass time on the interpretation of radar data for vegetation monitoring.@en

The latest developments in radar mission concepts suggest that subdaily synthetic aperture radar will become available in the next decades. The goal of this study was to demonstrate the potential value of subdaily spaceborne radar for monitoring vegetation water dynamics, which is essential to understand the role of vegetation in the climate system. In particular, we aimed to quantify fluctuations of internal and surface canopy water (SCW) and understand their effect on subdaily patterns of L-band backscatter. An intensive field campaign was conducted in north-central Florida, USA, in 2018. A truck-mounted polarimetric L-band scatterometer was used to scan a sweet corn field multiple times per day, from sowing to harvest. SCW (dew, interception), soil moisture, and plant and soil hydraulics were monitored every 15 min. In addition, regular destructive sampling was conducted to measure seasonal and diurnal variations of internal vegetation water content. The results showed that backscatter was sensitive to both transient rainfall interception events, and slower daily cycles of internal canopy water and dew. On late-season days without rainfall, maximum diurnal backscatter variations of >2 dB due to internal and SCW were observed in all polarizations. These results demonstrate a potentially valuable application for the next generation of spaceborne radar missions.@en

The presence of surface water on the canopy affects radar backscatter. However, its influence on the relationship between radar backscatter and crop biophysical parameters has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to quantify the influence of surface canopy water (SCW) on the relationship between L-band radar backscatter and biophysical variables of interest in agricultural monitoring. In this study, we investigated the effect of SCW on the relationship between co- and cross-polarized radar backscatter, cross ratios (VH/VV and HV/HH), and radar vegetation index (RVI) and dry biomass, vegetation water content (VWC), plant height and leaf area index (LAI). In addition, the effect of SCW on estimated vegetation optical depth (VOD) and its relationship with internal VWC was investigated. The analysis was based on data collected during a field experiment in Florida, USA in 2018. A corn field was scanned with a truck-mounted, fully polarimetric, L-band radar along with continuous monitoring of SCW (dew, interception) and soil moisture every 15 min for 58 days. In addition, pre-dawn destructive sampling was conducted to measure internal vegetation water content and dry biomass. Results showed that the presence of SCW can increase the radar backscatter up to 2 dB and this effect was lower for cross ratios (CRs) and RVI. The Spearman's rank correlations between radar observables and biophysical parameters were, on average, 0.2 higher for dry vegetation compared to wet vegetation. The estimated VOD from wet vegetation was generally higher than those from dry vegetation, which led to different fitting parameter (so-called b) values in the linear fit between VOD and VWC. The results presented here underscore the importance of considering the influence of SCW on the retrieval of biophysical variables of interest in agricultural monitoring. In particular, they highlight the importance of overpass time, and the impact that daily patterns in dew and interception can have on the retrieval of biophysical variables of interest.@en

Agriculture plays a critical role in the economy and environment worldwide, and the provision of real-time, reliable information on large-scale agricultural activity is essential for precision agriculture and global economic prosperity. In this context, remote sensing, especially through Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), can play an important role by offering accurate estimation of crop biophysical parameters such as Leaf Area Index (LAI), crop height, dry biomass, and Vegetation Water Content (VWC). Unlike traditional high-resolution optical imagery, which is often undermined by cloud cover, SAR microwave remote sensing overcomes these limitations by generating and transmitting longer wavelengths (300MHz – 10 GHz) that penetrate clouds and aerosols and allowing data acquisition both day and night. However, SAR data is influenced by various factors such as sensor characteristics such as frequency, polarization, and incidence angle, as well as target characteristics like the size and shape distribution of crop constituents, and more importantly, the water content of crop constituents. In the path towards precision farming and more sustainable and efficient farming using SAR data, understanding the role of these factors, particularly the dynamics of external and internal vegetation water content on radar backscatter, is vital. To date, however, the potentially confounding effects of both internal and, particularly, external water dynamics in vegetation on radar backscatter have not been adequately addressed. Existing studies have indeed illustrated the effects of SCW on radar backscatter, but the degree to which it influences different frequencies and polarizations, and the subsequent impact on crop bio-geophysical parameters remains unclear. Therefore, the main goal of this thesis is to expand our knowledge of the relationship between radar backscatter, vegetation dynamics, and surface canopy water (SCW) in agricultural monitoring. In this thesis we utilized statistical analysis and radiative transfer modeling in combination with fully polarimetric L-band data from a truck-mounted scatterometer and C-band data from Sentinel-1, along with extensive field data… @en

In this study, we performed ground validation to support the interpretation of Sentinel-1 imagery during a full growing season of five key crop types in the Netherlands. Crop height and growth stage were monitored weekly in a total of 25 parcels of maize, potato, sugar beet maize and English rye grass in the province of Flevoland. Hydrometeorological data were collected throughout the season. Here, these results are used to interpret time series of Sentinel-1 data processed for the province of Flevoland. Results demonstrate that Sentinel-1 data follow the phenological stages and can be used to identify key moments in crop development. Combined with the guaranteed availability of observations regardless of cloud cover, this makes Sentinel-l data a valuable resource for agencies and commercial entities providing advice to farmers and agro-industrial co-operatives.@en

Microwave observations are sensitive to vegetation water content (VWC). Consequently, the increasing temporal and spatial resolution of spaceborne microwave observations creates a unique opportunity to study vegetation water dynamics and its role in the diurnal water cycle. However, we currently have a limited understanding of sub-daily variations in the VWC and how they affect microwave observations. This is partly due to the challenges associated with measuring internal VWC for validation, particularly non-destructively, and at timescales of less than a day. In this study, we aimed to (1) use field sensors to reconstruct diurnal and continuous records of internal VWC of corn and (2) use these records to interpret the sub-daily behaviour of a 10 d time series of polarimetric L-band backscatter with high temporal resolution. Sub-daily variations in internal VWC were calculated based on the cumulative difference between estimated transpiration and sap flow rates at the base of the stems. Destructive samples were used to constrain the estimates and for validation. The inclusion of continuous surface canopy water estimates (dew or interception) and surface soil moisture allowed us to attribute hour-to-hour backscatter dynamics either to internal VWC, surface canopy water, or soil moisture variations. Our results showed that internal VWC varied by 10 %–20 % during the day in non-stressed conditions, and the effect on backscatter was significant. Diurnal variations in internal VWC and nocturnal dew formation affected vertically polarized backscatter most. Moreover, multiple linear regression suggested that the diurnal cycle of VWC on a typical dry day leads to a 2 (HH, horizontally, and cross-polarized) to almost 4 (VV, vertically, polarized) times higher diurnal backscatter variation than the soil moisture drydown does. These results demonstrate that radar observations have the potential to provide unprecedented insight into the role of vegetation water dynamics in land–atmosphere interactions at sub-daily timescales.@en