The early history of Singapore’s public housing programme is well-chronicled. By the mid-1980s, the Housing and Development Board (HDB), established by the People’s Action Party (PAP) in 1960, housed over 80% of the country’s population in 500,000 flats. This paper foregrounds a second, under-studied chapter in Singapore’s public housing history: the mass ‘upgrading’ programme, which from the 1980s to early-2000s, added new rooms to existing flats, remodelled façades with postmodern embellishments, and transformed barren public spaces into landscaped parks and squares.

This paper analyses Singapore’s public housing upgrading programme through two intersecting lenses. First, it understands mass housing, its architecture, and by extension its transformation, as apparatuses to realise multifaceted goals. Second, it situates upgrading within an established political economy of housing in Singapore, as constructing legitimacy and reinforcing control for the PAP in Singapore’s ‘illiberal’ democracy.

Drawing on archival materials and secondary sources, the paper argues that the upgrading programme performed in three key ‘spheres’. Politically, the upgrading programme deployed architectural participation to widen the scope of democracy in public housing, while being wielded as a tool of voter coercion. Socio-culturally, design strategies of enclosure, ornamentation, and representation mediated and reinforced class distinctions between public housing and private condominiums. Economically, flat extensions served to redistributively increase home values and consolidate economic control under the PAP.

The paper concludes by advocating for critical engagement with architectural transformation. Contesting the popular conception of retrofit as a panacea—for gentrification, alienation, and carbon emissions—it calls for recognition of its contingencies and susceptibility to co-option.

The research paper analyzes the spatial dynamics of traditional Turkish coffeehouses as a micro-public space in 1980s Turkey. Focusing on the gendered exclusion of women in the neighbourhood scale where coffeehouses are located, the paper examines the tactical presence of women in the micro-public spheres. Through the analysis of architectural plans, oral histories from my mother and grandmother, and photographs from my grandfather’s İzmir coffeehouse (1982–83) in the family archive, the article focuses on how the kahvehane’s interior layout, as well as its later expansion into street‐front space, established a public sphere that is male‐exclusive. The work foregrounds the consistency of women’s conditional presence; women were only present if they were subservient or had familial ties to the coffeehouse’s owner. The artificial boundaries created by the social norms regulated women’s freedom of movement inside and outside the coffeehouse. The article seeks to document the everyday tactics of women to show how the subtle and indirect negotiations contested patriarchal social norms. Ultimately, this work aims to reconceptualize coffeehouses as contested micro-public spheres where marginalization and subtle presence intertwine.

Throughout over 300 years of Dutch colonisation, there has not been one single time when the indigenous or (freed) slave people of Bonaire have benefited over the colonists or been aided by the colonists. This is especially clear when looking at the development of the infrastructure. Many colonies nowadays still suffer from past colonial interventions regarding their road development (Marein, 2022; Ng et al., 2019; Gardner and Roy, 2020; Dorosh et al., 2011). These past studies also discuss how the lack of mobility and accessibility decreases the chances for economic growth. This paper aims to extrapolate the conclusions drawn by past studies and, along with journals, images and maps, explore how the evolution of Bonaire’s road infrastructure has affected, especially, the non-Europeans living on the island. This paper focuses on the period in which Bonaire was colonised by the Dutch, so the effects of colonial interventions can be critically analysed. The paper aims to focus on the materiality & quality of the roads, who used them and how they were used. By analysing the colonisation period through the lens of the road infrastructure, recurring patterns of discrimination and segregation can be identified. This is especially between the Europeans and the indigenous and (freed) slave people on the island. This discrimination has, in turn, led the non-Europeans on the island to be constantly prevented from developing economically and, therefore, left them completely dependent on Dutch investment.

This paper explores the evolution of the bahay kubo during Spanish colonial rule and how it became a symbol of Philippine identity. Constructed from local materials, the bahay kubo reflects Filipino values of community and spirituality, shaping the architectural form of the vernacular dwelling. Spanish colonization introduced new religious and socio-political structures, such as Christianity and the encomienda system, which altered the built environment and transformed the bahay kubo into the bahay na bato (stone house). Despite attempts at cultural erasure, elements of the bahay kubo were preserved by blending them with colonial architecture and practices. After the declaration of independence, Filipino architects discovered a new appreciation for the bahay kubo, symbolizing national identity, which carried a hidden political agenda. By analyzing the architectural, cultural, and historical aspects surrounding the bahay kubo through literature study, this paper argues that Philippine architecture should be defined not only by its physical form but also by its ability to coexist with its people, adapting to their cultural, social, and environmental needs.

This study examines the dual role of Tropical Modernism in colonial and postcolonial Ghana through Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry’s 1951 Accra Community Centre. Constructed in response to the 1948 anti-colonial riots, the Centre embodied Britain’s strategy to reassert control via architectural interventions. Blending modernist functionality with climate-responsive design, its spatial hierarchy camouflaged colonial dominance under the guise of civic progress. Archival plans and colonial records reveal how the Centre’s layout enforced social divisions, marginalising local agency while projecting Eurocentric modernity. Post-independence, Kwame Nkrumah’s government repurposed the site as the Young Pioneer Centre, transforming its colonial infrastructure into a tool for nationalist ideology. This duality underscores Tropical Modernism’s entanglement with power: initially a vehicle for imperial control, later adapted to assert African sovereignty. Drawing on critiques by scholars like Iain Jackson and Ola Uduku, the paper positions the Centre as a battleground for political ideologies, where architecture mediated colonial governance and postcolonial nation-building. By analysing its design, socio-political context, and legacy, the study illuminates how built environments function as instruments of social engineering, shaping identities and hierarchies across regimes. The findings contribute to broader discourses on colonial architecture’s enduring impact on urban landscapes and cultural negotiation in the Global South.

This thesis investigates the Tintenpalast in Windhoek, Namibia, as a lens to explore colonial entanglements between people, knowledge, and resources in German Southwest Africa during the German colonial era. While previous studies have focused primarily on stylistic and formal aspects, this research takes a broader, interdisciplinary approach by situating the building within its political, material, and social contexts. Analysing the Tintenpalast reveals it as a manifestation of imperial ambitions, administrative pragmatism, and infrastructural challenges. By examining various sources, including architectural drawings, archival photos, and contemporary literature, the study reconstructs the complex relations that try to explain the building's location and design. The thesis highlights the conflicting interests of key actors: the Reichskolonialamt (Imperial Colonial Office), which aimed to express power through monumental visibility; colonial governors and administrators seeking efficient governance; German settlers demanding proximity and accessibility; and the Indigenous populations, who remained excluded from the process. A key focus in the making of the Tintenpalast lies in architectural adaptation. The work shows how German-trained architects like Gottlieb Redecker mediated between European Neo-style design ideals of the early 20th century and the colony's material, climatic, and logistical realities. The design iterations of the Tintenpalast reflect these dynamics, balancing metropolitan aesthetics with colonial feasibility. Ultimately, the thesis argues that the Tintenpalast exemplifies how colonial architecture operated not solely as a top-down imposition of power but as a negotiated outcome between privileged groups shaped by competing agendas, practical limitations, and infrastructural entanglements. Rather than viewing architecture as a static product, this research positions it as a dynamic process embedded in the socio-political and shaped by continuous adaptation.

This essay examines how working-class women’s daily lives were influenced by domestic technologies and communal infrastructure in interwar “Red Vienna”. It has a particular focus on the communal laundry facilities in the Karl-Marx-Hof, one of Vienna’s largest municipal housing projects. The study emphasises both the physical strain of domestic work and the potential of social and technological advancement by drawing on newspaper excerpts, archival photos, and articles from workers’ associations’ journals. The study reveals that while domestic chores like laundry continued to be taxing and gendered, the installation of communal washhouses marked a significant change in living circumstances, especially for women. In addition to easing the technical and spatial constraints of private apartments, these areas functioned as centres for social interaction and collective labour. Women are shown performing labour-intensive tasks in both visual and textual sources, highlighting the ongoing struggle even in social contexts.
The study places Red Vienna’s housing projects in the context of larger socialist reform initiatives that sought to improve women’s status and modernise urban life by providing them with access to innovative amenities and infrastructure. However, it also highlights the shortcomings of these efforts, since many duties stayed the same in terms of gender and level of intensity. This paper provides a framework for understanding how infrastructure design can either alleviate or reinforce domestic inequality. The case of the Karl-Marx-Hof serves as an example of both the potential and difficulties of utilising technology and collaborative approaches to enhance the lives of women in the domestic environment.

Paris stands as one of the world’s leading tourist destinations, attracting some 20 million visitors a year (Pearce, 1998). This enthusiasm largely stems from idealised representations of the city. These stereotyped images have been widely reproduced and disseminated, historically for tourism purposes, through postcards, literature, social media and, most notably, cinema (Liz, 2014). This thesis offers an analysis of the Netflix series Emily in Paris (Darren, 2020), focusing on how it captures the architecture and atmosphere of Paris. Through a reading at different scales - urban, local and domestic - this analysis sheds light on the mechanisms through which architecture is staged to create an idealised and romanticised image of the capital. Far from being a novel depiction, this fantasised version of Paris is part of a wellestablished tradition based on the circulation of romantic symbols associated with the city and sustained by the tourists’ expectation of the city. In parallel to the analysis of Paris’s representation in the series, this research also examines the influence of this portrayal on tourist’s behaviour. In a context marked by the omnipresence of the Internet, social networks and platforms such as Airbnb, the study highlights the way visitors consume the series’ filming locations and how these practices affect urban dynamics, namely circulation, local small businesses, and the housing market. More broadly, this research explores the tangible impacts of fiction in shaping urban imaginary, boosting the city’s appeal and stimulating tourism, often at the expense of residents, who see their daily lives transformed.

As society advances, we encounter pressing global challenges such as resource scarcity and rapid population growth. According to the United Nations, “The world population is projected to reach 8.5 billion in 2030, and to increase further to 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.4 billion by 2100.” This raises the question: how does architecture adapt to the swift increase in urban densification? One effective solution is the concept of a vertical streetscape, which combines multiple functions, such as transportation infrastructure, residential units, and retail spaces within a vertical space.
According to the Vertical Urbanism report, Hong Kong is the second most densely populated region in the world after Mumbai and ranks fourth in terms of tall buildings (≥100 m) stock, with a low crime rate. As a prominent global financial centre and commercial port, it is an exemplary case study demonstrating the right balance of density and connection. At the heart of this urban landscape is the High-rise Mixed-Use Building, the current dominant building type in Hong Kong.
This article will focus on the smaller, human scale of Hong Kong’s vertical streetscapes. From studying the historical background, investigating the first skyscraper, then branching out to the most recent designs, to analyse and derive insights from these examples. Primary archives, such as plans and sections, are studied to identify the high-rise composite building typology's characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses.

This research explores the professional lives of female architects in Soviet Lithuania between the 1960s and 1980s, with a particular focus on Nijolė Bučiūtė and her design of the National Opera and Ballet Theatre. The study commences by outlining the historical context of Lithuania that shaped its architectural industry, examining how changing ideological and political reforms influenced the profession. Although the Soviet Union’s official rhetoric claimed gender equality, a deeply rooted patriarchal system limited women’s professional journeys. In this context, Bučiūtė‘s appointment to design the National Opera and Ballet Theatre in Vilnius in 1960 was a groundbreaking achievement, as women architects were rarely entrusted with leading projects. Gender biases within the Lithuanian architectural community are then examined, revealing how they shaped the reception of Bučiūtė‘s work. While the architect developed a distinct and innovative architectural vision, her work was frequently met with opposition. By maintaining confidence in her identity, she challenged the dominant canon of Lithuanian modernism, yet her legacy remains underacknowledged to this day.

Bučiūtė’s unique position within the architectural field in Lithuania offers a critical lens through which to investigate the broader gender dynamics of the Soviet Union’s industry. Lithuanian architectural archives and historical narratives have predominantly focused on male practitioners, leaving women’s contributions largely undocumented. By situating Bučiūtė’s career within the intersecting forces of political ideology, institutional barriers, and societal expectations, this research narrates an untold part of history, exploring how women navigated the profession’s male-dominated environment. Incorporating evidence from archival material, press coverage, and interviews with Bučiūtė’s colleagues and family members, alongside a detailed analysis of the National Opera and Ballet Theatre design process, this study aims to reveal the gender inequalities in the field. Notably, gender disparities in recognition and historiography persist, despite women comprising 40% of currently practising architects in Lithuania. Ultimately, the need for a critical feminist re-evaluation of Lithuanian architectural history is highlighted, advocating for a more equitable acknowledgement of women architects’ contributions to the discourse.

Following Indonesia’s independence from the Dutch in 1945, the country underwent a nation-building process aimed at reshaping national identity, with architecture serving as a crucial medium for articulating postcolonial ambitions. This thesis examines the work of Han Awal, a pioneering architect whose career spanned Indonesia’s two major political regimes, the Old Order under President Sukarno and the New Order under President Suharto. Rather than aligning fully with either regime’s architectural ideologies, Han Awal emerges in this study as an individual agent navigating the nuanced and often contradictory landscape of postcolonial architectural production. His work challenged dominant narratives of modernisation by advocating for the conservation of colonial and vernacular architecture at a time when the state often prioritised development over preservation.

This thesis examines Han Awal’s introduction of a counter-hegemonic discourse that positioned conservation as a tool of cultural reclamation rather than nostalgic reverence, with a particular focus on his restoration of Gedung Arsip Nasional. In order to place Han Awal’s practice within larger conversations on architectural identity, memory, and state ideology, I conducted an in-depth interview with Yori Antar, Han Awal’s son and architect, as well as using architectural plans, archival materials, and other sources.

This thesis aims to demonstrate how conservation, when rooted in local context and historical awareness, can play a transformative role in shaping a pluralistic and inclusive national architectural identity in Indonesia.

This paper explores the forced resettlement and urban identity formation in the city of Szczecin. The city underwent significant political and architectural transformation after the events of World War II. By looking at forced displacement, this paper will examine the urban transformation that happened in the city post 1945. It will look at how the city’s new inhabitants, uprooted from eastern Polish territories, navigated a landscape filled with remnants of the German past. Szczecin, once a thriving German port city, was rebranded as part of “Recovered Territories” and was given to Poland in the aftermath of the Second World War.
Its new citizens were tasked with creating homes and identities in an unfamiliar environment. By focusing on personal narratives and spatial transformation of the city, I will investigate how these settlers adapted in the city. The paper will analyse the symbolic efforts to erase German heritage and how that played a role in constructing a new Polish identity. This study sheds light on the complexities of belonging in post-war urban spaces and the role of architecture and urban
design in the formation of collective identity. From looking at the transformation of the historical centre between 1945 and the 1950s and the construction of communist-era housing estates, this paper will analyse how those spaces were shaped by factors of forced resettlement. Through archival research, urban analysis, and oral histories, I will aim to offer insights into the lasting effects of forced resettlement on the cultural and architectural identity of post-war Szczecin.

Renowned urban squares around the world seldom have a past that has not been marked by political upheaval and trauma. Tiananmen Square in Beijing or the Red Square in Moscow are examples that attest to this. Urban designers and architects approach politically volatile squares in varying ways that may or may not consider their complex histories. For instance, the urban fabric of Berlin adopts a design approach that confronts its past by integrating structures such as the Berlin Wall within its present context, thus honoring a collective memory.
The paper focuses on the context of Kashmir and more specifically, Srinagar, which has witnessed increasing political tensions ever since India gained its independence in 1947. These heightened tensions have hurled Srinagar into a constant state of political volatility.
With competing political narratives and multiple religious sentiments, Srinagar’s central square (Lal Chowk) has emerged as the focal point of historical turbulence. Increased political volatility encodes its built fabric and consequently alters the various personal associations it holds. Today, town planning proposals for Lal Chowk aim for urban solutions that veil its troubled past and opt for a seemingly modern approach that mimics dissimilar contexts.
Through chronological mapping between political events and transformations in the built fabric, this paper draws attention to how Lal Chowk serves as a political archive for Kashmir. It therefore argues for urban planning possibilities that confront Srinagar’s past. Following this, it emphasizes the importance of recognizing and commemorating collective memory while supporting a progressive future.

This thesis investigates how the restoration of heritage sites can contribute to reclaiming national and cultural identity in post-colonial contexts, focusing on the Raïs Palace/Bastion 23 in the Casbah of Algiers. Employing the crossed histories methodology, the research examines multiple overlapping historical narratives that shaped the palace‘s original 16th-century Ottoman structure through significant transformations under French colonial rule to its extensive post-independence restoration efforts. Central to this analysis is the detailed examination of the 1981 UNESCO report, which outlined technical and ideological challenges in restoring a monument heavily altered by colonial interventions.

The findings highlight that Algeria‘s restoration initiative, guided by UNESCO‘s recommendations and executed through international partnerships, was an active attempt to reconstruct a pre-colonial identity. However, the study identifies tensions between international conservation standards and local conceptions of heritage, which demonstrates how global methodologies sometimes overshadow local cultural narratives and decision-making processes. Ultimately, the Raïs Palace symbolizes both the possibilities and limitations of post-colonial heritage restoration: while effectively reclaiming historical narratives, it also exposes persistent issues related to cultural sovereignty and the social integration of heritage sites into contemporary urban life. This thesis aims to contribute valuable insights into broader academic discussions on heritage preservation and urban cultural heritage management by critically engaging with the interactions documented in multiple UNESCO reports and various local experts.

During the rapid urbanization of the early 20th century, Western policies and forms of public housing provided a significant model for the development of modern public housing in China. In the face of severe national conditions, Chinese scholars and the Nationalist government worked together to develop public housing as a symbol of societal reform and architectural innovation. This thesis focuses on the initial period of establishing the public housing system from 1928 to 1937. It first explores the social background of public housing through historical research and literature review. It then examines primary sources such as periodicals and mass media to understand how scholars introduced the concept into China. Additionally, through case studies in architecture including plans for four different types of social housing and the planning of a new village, this thesis provides a comprehensive and interdisciplinary understanding of the development of public housing during this period, demonstrating how the ideals of social reform were transformed into practical solutions for improving people's welfare.

In the midst of economic turmoil and environmental adversity, Bedouin communities in the Levant demonstrate remarkable resilience through their architectural practices and communal ethos. This study examines the spatial dynamics of Bedouin settlements, exploring their adaptation strategies during the economic crisis of 2023 in Lebanon, and drawing insights from Bedouins in Palestine, Jordan and Egypt from the early Islamic period (600 AD) to the present-day. The essence of Bedouin identity, embodied in the term 'badou', reflects a resilient lifestyle rooted in mobility, adaptability and mutual dependency. An analysis of architectural typologies - caves, tents and caravanserais - reveals spatial strategies that promote economic autonomy and communal bonds. The resonance of Bedouin architecture with contemporary discourses on self-reliance, community and resilience is evident. Using local materials, traditional craftsmanship, and collective ownership, Bedouin communities exemplify holistic resilience that integrates social, economic, and environmental dimensions.

In conclusion, Bedouin architecture offers timeless lessons for contemporary practice and urban planning. Its ethos of self-reliance and communal solidarity serves as a beacon for navigating the complexities of an interconnected world and building a more resilient future.