The conducted research explores fitting algorithms for learning curves. Learning curves describe how the performance of a machine learning model changes with the size of the training input. Therefore, fitting these learning curves and extrapolating them can help determine the required data set size for any desired performance. The paper specifically explores the Learning Curve Database (LCDB) and investigates alternative fitting algorithms to the employed Levenberg-Marquardt (LM). These algorithms are Gradient Descent and BFGS, and the paper aims to determine whether they are more suitable for fitting learning curves than LM. The algorithms were implemented, both in their default and optimised states, and the results were compared to LM. The results measured mean-squared error (MSE), L1 Loss, individual parametric model performance, and computation time. The findings showed that Gradient Descent is not a suitable alternative to LM; however, BFGS proved to be competitive, as it is practically identical in performance while being significantly faster than LM. The results answered the proposed aim of the paper and generated new questions that need answering. Further exploration of the BFGS algorithm and its application on learning curve fitting is recommended. Comparisons between the MSE distribution of LM and BFGS can be further explored, as well as comparisons on new parametric models, learners, and datasets.

Learning curves are used to shape the performance of a Machine Learning (ML) model with respect to the size of the set used for training it. It was commonly thought that adding more training samples would increase the model's accuracy (i.e., they are monotone), but recent works show that may not always be the case. In other words, some learners on some problems show non-monotonic behaviour. To this extent, we introduce a new method to identify non-monotonicity in empirical learning curves by approximating the curve's slope through regression around the discrete points it is defined on.This paper formalises this metric and then evaluates its accuracy through different experiments. Finally, we run the proposed metric on a subset of the extensive Learning Curve Database (LCDB) by Mohr et al. to gain better insights into the problem of non-monotonicity of learning. We found that the metric can identify non-monotonicity in learning curves well (98% experimental accuracy) and does not consider small increases due to measurement error as non-monotonicity in the curve. Finally, we have identified that non-monotonicity may be a property of some classifiers, such as Linear Discriminant Analysis. Moreover, we identified that non-monotonicity is frequently observed in datasets with faster training times.

Nonconvexity in learning curves is almost always undesirable. A machine learning model with a non-convex learning curve either requires a larger quantity of data to observe progress in its accuracy or experiences an exponential decrease of accuracy at low sample sizes, with no improvement in accuracy even when more data points are added. This paper proposes a novel approach to determine the convexity of a learning curve, which relies on calculating the second derivative of the learning curve to estimate its convexity. Along the way, we have confirmed the correctness of the proposed method from multiple perspectives, such as testing it with baselines or establishing confidence intervals for the convexity of the learning curve. Lastly, we compare our method to an alternative method and highlight some of its shortcomings.

Learning curves display predictions of the chosen model’s performance for different training set sizes. They can help estimate the amount of data required to achieve a minimal error rate, thus aiding in reducing the cost of data collection. However, our understanding and knowledge of the various shapes of learning curves and their applicability are still insufficient. Despite the presence of a curve that demonstrates a high level of accuracy on average, this parametric model can still exhibit inadequate performance in certain scenarios. Therefore, the objective of this research is to identify specific patterns in the datasets that influence the selection of a particular parametric curve model. To accomplish this, I conduct experiments to assess the performance of different parametric learning curves including power, exponential and Morgan-Mercer-Flodin (mmf) based on the number of features, classes, outliers, and machine learning models. I find that mmf and exponential curves outperform power law for all machine learning models. All curves work best with Logistic Regression, Bernoulli Naive Bayers and Multinomial Naive Bayers models. Exponential and mmf curves provide better results than power law for a small number of classes. Mmf also outperforms power law for the majority of numbers of features and outlier percentages.

This paper investigates how OpenAI’s Whisper model processes dysarthric speech by probing its internal acoustic feature representations. Utilizing the TORGO database, we analyzed Whisper’s capability to encode significant acoustic features specific to dysarthric speech across its encoding layers. Our findings reveal that initial layers are particularly effective in capturing distinct features, while deeper layers show generalized representations. Despite this, Whisper’s zero-shot performance in distinguishing dysarthric speech severity levels is noteworthy. We employed a series of probing tasks tailored to dysarthric speech characteristics to pinpoint specific features and their transformation across the model’s layers. This study highlights Whisper’s potential in handling atypical speech patterns without fine-tuning, paving the way for further research into the interpretability and application of transformer-based models in medical and assistive technologies. We discuss the implications of these results for enhancing transparency, reliability, and safe AI integration in healthcare.

Dysarthria is a speech disorder that limits an individual’s ability to clearly articulate, due to the weakening of the muscles involved in speech. Despite recent advances in Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), the recognition of dysarthric speech remains a significant challenge because of the limited availability of dysarthric speech data, significant speaker variability, and the mismatch between typical and dysarthric speech patterns. This paper addresses these challenges by using transfer learning and Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) techniques to enhance the performance of the state- of-the-art ASR model Whisper on dysarthric speech. By fine-tuning Whisper with the TORGO dataset, this study aims to adapt the pre-trained models to better recognise dysarthric speech patterns, thus reducing Word Error Rates (WER) and improving accessibility for individuals with speech impairments. Experimental results indicate that this approach can improve speech recognition performance since the Large- V2, Large-V3 and the corresponding distilled models achieved a reduction in WER after fine-tuning. The Large-V3 model achieved the greatest relative WER reduction of 22.65%.

Dysarthria is a speech disorder that limits an individual’s ability to clearly articulate, due to the weakening of the muscles involved in speech. Despite recent advances in Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), the recognition of dysarthric speech remains a significant challenge because of the limited availability of dysarthric speech data, significant speaker variability, and the mismatch between typical and dysarthric speech patterns. This paper addresses these challenges by using transfer learning and Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) techniques to enhance the performance of the state- of-the-art ASR model Whisper on dysarthric speech. By fine-tuning Whisper with the TORGO dataset, this study aims to adapt the pre-trained models to better recognise dysarthric speech patterns, thus reducing Word Error Rates (WER) and improving accessibility for individuals with speech impairments. Experimental results indicate that this approach can improve speech recognition performance since the Large- V2, Large-V3 and the corresponding distilled models achieved a reduction in WER after fine-tuning. The Large-V3 model achieved the greatest relative WER reduction of 22.65%.

Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) systems have transformed human-machine interaction, yet they often struggle with child speech due to the unique vocal characteristics. This thesis investigates age and gender biases, focusing on enhancing the performance of state-of-the-art ASR model Whisper on child speech. Initial experiments reveal significant disparities in recognition accuracy across age groups and genders within child speech, highlighting the critical need for targeted improvements. The study uses Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) to finetune the model using four child-specific datasets, aiming to simultaneously enhance recognition performance and mitigate biases. Results demonstrate substantial reductions in Word Error Rates (WER) and biases after finetuning, showcasing the effectiveness of transfer learning in addressing demographic inequality. Gender biases decreased by 32.77% relative to their initial values, and age biases also improved, with a relative decrease of 27.52% after finetuning. This research showcases the potential of tailored approaches to advance ASR technology for low-resource user demographics, with implications for improving educational and assistive technologies. Index Terms: Automatic Speech Recognition, Child speech, Whisper ASR model, Age and gender biases, Low-Rank Adaptation, Transfer learning, Demographic disparities

Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) systems have transformed human-machine interaction, yet they often struggle with child speech due to the unique vocal characteristics. This thesis investigates age and gender biases, focusing on enhancing the performance of state-of-the-art ASR model Whisper on child speech. Initial experiments reveal significant disparities in recognition accuracy across age groups and genders within child speech, highlighting the critical need for targeted improvements. The study uses Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) to finetune the model using four child-specific datasets, aiming to simultaneously enhance recognition performance and mitigate biases. Results demonstrate substantial reductions in Word Error Rates (WER) and biases after finetuning, showcasing the effectiveness of transfer learning in addressing demographic inequality. Gender biases decreased by 32.77% relative to their initial values, and age biases also improved, with a relative decrease of 27.52% after finetuning. This research showcases the potential of tailored approaches to advance ASR technology for low-resource user demographics, with implications for improving educational and assistive technologies. Index Terms: Automatic Speech Recognition, Child speech, Whisper ASR model, Age and gender biases, Low-Rank Adaptation, Transfer learning, Demographic disparities

Dysarthria is a speech disorder commonly caused by neurological disorders such as strokes, cerebral palsy and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). The severity level of dysarthria greatly influences the appropriate treatment for a patient. However, assessing the severity of dysarthria in a patient is a time-consuming process that requires a trained speech therapist. Therefore the following work explores a variety of classifier architectures for automatic dysarthria severity assessment using Whisper encodings. The datasets used were MSDM and TORGO while the classifier architectures implemented included a Convolutional Neural Networks and Recurrent Neural Network variants. Across both datasets, the Gated Recurrent Unit network (GRU) achieved the best performance with 97.21% accuracy on MSDM and 97.47% on TORGO.

Dysarthria is a speech disorder commonly caused by neurological disorders such as strokes, cerebral palsy and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). The severity level of dysarthria greatly influences the appropriate treatment for a patient. However, assessing the severity of dysarthria in a patient is a time-consuming process that requires a trained speech therapist. Therefore the following work explores a variety of classifier architectures for automatic dysarthria severity assessment using Whisper encodings. The datasets used were MSDM and TORGO while the classifier architectures implemented included a Convolutional Neural Networks and Recurrent Neural Network variants. Across both datasets, the Gated Recurrent Unit network (GRU) achieved the best performance with 97.21% accuracy on MSDM and 97.47% on TORGO.

Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting in slurred or slow speech that can be difficult to understand. This re- search paper evaluates the effectiveness of various metrics for automatic speech recognition (ASR), such as character error rate (CER), Jaro-Winkler distance, and BERTscore, in assessing performance specifically for dysarthric speech, which is often inadequately measured by the commonly used word error rate (WER). Using the TORGO database, which includes a range of dysarthria severities, we analyze the performance of chosen evaluation metrics with the Whisper and wav2vec 2.0 ASR systems to understand how they reflect the true speech recognition challenges presented by such atypical speech pat- terns. Our findings reveal that Whisper generally outperforms wav2vec 2.0, particularly in sentence utterances, by effectively managing complex speech patterns and maintaining semantic integrity. The analysis highlights that single-word utterances strongly correlate with dysarthria severity, while sentence utterances show a lesser correlation due to the mitigating effect of additional linguistic context.

Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting in slurred or slow speech that can be difficult to understand. This re- search paper evaluates the effectiveness of various metrics for automatic speech recognition (ASR), such as character error rate (CER), Jaro-Winkler distance, and BERTscore, in assessing performance specifically for dysarthric speech, which is often inadequately measured by the commonly used word error rate (WER). Using the TORGO database, which includes a range of dysarthria severities, we analyze the performance of chosen evaluation metrics with the Whisper and wav2vec 2.0 ASR systems to understand how they reflect the true speech recognition challenges presented by such atypical speech pat- terns. Our findings reveal that Whisper generally outperforms wav2vec 2.0, particularly in sentence utterances, by effectively managing complex speech patterns and maintaining semantic integrity. The analysis highlights that single-word utterances strongly correlate with dysarthria severity, while sentence utterances show a lesser correlation due to the mitigating effect of additional linguistic context.

Learning curves in machine learning are graphical representations that depict the relationship between a model's performance and the amount of training data it has been exposed to. They play a fundamental role in obtaining the knowledge and skills across a range of domains. Although there are already quite some researches studying machine learning curves, explaining the importance and practical application of learning curves, we still know very little about the factors that influence the parameters of the learning curve. The aim of this research is to give a better understanding of different factors affecting the parameters of the learning curve. Specifically, we are interested in how the dimensionality of a dataset can influence the parameters of the learning curve. Since learning curves are useful and have several applications, such as estimation of the time required to complete production runs, we would like to know if the dimensionality has any effect on the shapes of learning curves. To conduct the research I applied principal component analysis (PCA) three times with different amount of information preserved to reduce number of dimensions on several datasets and analysed the changes in the parameters of the obtained learning curves. The research showed that potentially there might be some relation between dimensionality and shape of the curve, but only in cases of specific machine learning model. The amount of experiments conducted is not sufficient to make solid conclusions and it is advised to continue with proposed experimental setup, but train machine learning models on increased number of datasets.

Targeted and successful cellular therapies for disease treatment require an extensive mapping of the complex structure and dynamics of molecular mechanisms which determine the behaviour and function of cell. CELL-seq is a genome-wide screening procedure measuring specific and targeted protein quantities as phenotypic readouts and is employed by the Netherlands Cancer Institute to analyze which genes regulate the protein state of interest. This research aims to explore the current compendium of CELL-seq screens that investigate a range of phenotypes, to create a mapping of gene-gene associations that share similar phenotypic profiles and elucidate biology that is hard to uncover with more conventional screening techniques. We perform exploratory research to investigate the ability of the screen compendium to show network structures that reflect known biological processes. We find that with stringent requirements on interactions the screen compendium shows enrichment for a wide range of biological processes and known protein-protein interactions. We further conclude that the experimental design biases network behaviour and needs to be accounted for when constructing networks. We recommended a mutual k-nearest neighbor network construction approach, which yielded networks with the most biological relevance. We compare the CELL-seq screens using findings from the approaches to the DepMap dataset, a well-known collection of synthetic lethality CRISPR screens, and find that the behaviour of these datasets is in many ways mirrored. We conclude that this is both due to the biology they represent and the differences in the number of screens in each dataset. Finally, we compare the coverage of biological processes between the HAP1 compendium and DepMap, and show large overlap in their coverage. Nonetheless, the differences they do show leads us to bring forward two hypotheses for gene-gene interactions that score strongly uniquely in the CELL-seq networks which are biologically plausible but are not found in DepMap or curated literature, warranting future investigations. All code pertaining to the methods and figures in this work are hosted on GitLab by the High Performance Computing Facility of the Netherlands Cancer Institute. As such the code can be viewed by supervisors, but further details could be shared upon request.

Watermarks are historical motifs present in the texture of paper that are commonly used to identify the paper manufacturers. They only become visible when viewed under certain light conditions. Under ideal circumstances, researchers may use watermarks to determine a historical document’s origins and context. To identify a watermark, it is matched to a previously archived watermark. Currently, this matching must be done manually, which is neither scalable nor parallelizable. Existing studies explore digital reconstructions of watermarks, but do not focus on a comparison-based setup. This report discusses a system that can automatically identify similar watermarks using traditional image processing techniques. The resulting system speeds up the process considerably, can be used on small datasets, and is more accessible to end-users. The system uses harmonization, feature extraction, and similarity matching. Harmonization involves improving the clarity of the watermark, which is often obscured by the material properties of the paper. Feature extraction involves finding useful information from the isolated watermarks, and similarity matching uses this information to score the similarity of a pair. We evaluated our system based on a dataset provided by the German Museum of Books and Writing. Over a broader range of quality, accuracy was found to be within the range of 41-53%. It was also found that improving watermark quality within the dataset improved accuracy results to around 82%. The system shows promise particularly with higher quality datasets. This report therefore demonstrates that traditional image processing techniques can be valuable when applied to situations where artificial intelligence may not be possible or efficient. Further research into this domain would be required to understand the advantages and limitations of image processing in comparison with artificial intelligence.

Watermarks are historical motifs present in the texture of paper that are commonly used to identify the paper manufacturers. They only become visible when viewed under certain light conditions. Under ideal circumstances, researchers may use watermarks to determine a historical document’s origins and context. To identify a watermark, it is matched to a previously archived watermark. Currently, this matching must be done manually, which is neither scalable nor parallelizable. Existing studies explore digital reconstructions of watermarks, but do not focus on a comparison-based setup. This report discusses a system that can automatically identify similar watermarks using traditional image processing techniques. The resulting system speeds up the process considerably, can be used on small datasets, and is more accessible to end-users. The system uses harmonization, feature extraction, and similarity matching. Harmonization involves improving the clarity of the watermark, which is often obscured by the material properties of the paper. Feature extraction involves finding useful information from the isolated watermarks, and similarity matching uses this information to score the similarity of a pair. We evaluated our system based on a dataset provided by the German Museum of Books and Writing. Over a broader range of quality, accuracy was found to be within the range of 41-53%. It was also found that improving watermark quality within the dataset improved accuracy results to around 82%. The system shows promise particularly with higher quality datasets. This report therefore demonstrates that traditional image processing techniques can be valuable when applied to situations where artificial intelligence may not be possible or efficient. Further research into this domain would be required to understand the advantages and limitations of image processing in comparison with artificial intelligence.

Background. Quitting smoking is a challenge nowadays. Virtual coaches offer autonomous, personalized guidance for smoking cessation. However, such systems cannot replace human coaches completely. In situations, when human coaches cannot provide help to everyone - a virtual coach could follow a set of ethical principles to decide on who should get the feedback from a human. Objective. Our study aims to identify users’ preferences on ethical principles that a virtual coach should follow to decide when to allocate human feedback to individuals preparing to quit smoking. Methods. Our research was based on pre-gathered data, that included participants’ responses to open and closed questions regarding feedback allocation principles. Thematic analysis was conducted on these responses. Triangulation was performed using a qualitative literature review and quantitative data analysis. Results. Four main themes were identified: (1) Struggling the Most (63.75%), (2) Increasing Chances of Success the Most (13.75%), (3) Equal Treatment (11.25%), and (4) Appreciating the Most (11.25%). Participants prioritized support for those experiencing the greatest difficulty in smoking cessation. The triangulation supported the validity of these themes. Conclusions. Our study highlights the importance of integrating user-preferred ethical principles in virtual coaching systems for smoking cessation. Prioritization of users who struggle the most can increase the effectiveness and fairness of such systems, potentially increasing success rates. Future research should explore additional ethical principles, combining several principles into systems, and real-world application of these findings to further refine virtual coaching in healthcare.