The passage of ships in confined waterways creates a stern wave that can overflow bank protection structures such as groins. This overflow, due to the long-period primary ship-induced waves, can be high in velocity, especially at the lee-side slope of groins, potentially causing significant damage to the structure. This study derives an equation to express overflow velocities, intended as a design tool for groins exposed to these types of waves. A detailed experimental investigation was performed on four physical models of groins with different slopes and stone sizes in the armor layer under the influence of different hydraulic heads. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to measure the flow velocities at the crest and lee sides of the structure. All PIV measurements were performed thrice under free-flow conditions with no initial water level at the lee side of the structure. The depth- and time-averaged flow velocities (Uavg) were extracted from four positions along the lee-side slope and accelerated from 0.7 to 2.2 m/s. A dimensionless equation of the overflow velocities was obtained as a function of the hydraulic head (h), slope (θ), freeboard (Rc), and nominal rock diameter (dn50).

For the last two decades, significant damage to groyne structures has been observed in the German Elbe estuary. The main reason is the generation of primary ship-induced wave loading. The stern wave of the primary wave system appears as an overflowing over groyne, leading to damage at the crest and lee side of the structure due to the presence of high overflowing flow velocities (Melling et al., 2020). Therefore, overflowing flow velocities and damage were quantified by means of two different experimental setups; the flow experiments and the damage experiment.

The flow experiment involved testing scaled physical models under continuous free-flow conditions. A Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) setup was used to capture flow velocities at the crest and lee side slope. A dimensionless flow velocity equation is obtained for overflowing flow over groyne structures. The damage experiment assessed the impact of overflowing waves at the crest and lee side on one of the scaled physical models. Measurements were conducted via Structure from Motion principles (SfM) and the damage is expressed in damage parameters S for varying wave heights and freeboard levels. This parameter describes the damage by width-averaged eroded area made dimensionless by the squared nominal stone diameter. Furthermore, the assessment considered the determination of the damage limits (initiation, intermediate, and failure) of a groyne structure for these waves.

The results revealed the relation between the wave height and the freeboard and damage. Furthermore, by regarding the flow velocity explicitly a more fundamental understanding, and more generally applicable design approach might be obtained. The insights gained from this research contribute to an enhanced understanding of groyne behaviour under overflowing long- period ship-induced waves. By highlighting the significance of the flow velocities for waves and freeboard levels, this study provides valuable information for optimizing the design and maintenance of estuarine groynes that are prone to these types of wave-induced loads.

This study treats a detached homogenous low-crested structure (HLCS) made of Cubipod concrete elements placed seaward of a vertical wall (forming a basin in between) to reduce overtopping. Assessing the complex hydrodynamics and effects of changing the geometry of such a system in relation to overtopping reduction is challenging. The numerical model OpenFOAM was applied to this end. Forchheimer coefficients for wave transmission and the flow through the HLCS were calibrated and validated using existing physical modeling data (α = 500 and β = 1.0, with varying porosity based on the Cubipod shape), while the effect of the basin and vertical seawall was determined fully numerically. The crest freeboard (R_c), crest width (B), and basin length (L_B) were the main geometrical parameters that influenced the performance of the HLCS in reducing overtopping. An exponential decay was observed in the overtopping discharge when the values of these geometrical parameters increased. As L_B increased, this decay was primarily due to the dissipation of the broken-wave bores. The largest gradient in the predicted overtopping discharge was noted at R_c/H_s,i ≈ 0, B/H_s,i ≈ 4.5, and L_B/L_p ≈ 1.2, where H_s,i is the incident significant wave height and L_p is the peak wavelength in the basin.