Efficient utilization of energy generation techniques is gaining more prominence in the design and engineering of built structures. One of the most established techniques used is through solar energy-harnessing via photovoltaic technology. In this research, integrating photovoltaics is further explored in the textile architecture domain to capitalize on the large areas typically recognized in tensile/doubly curved structures and textile facades; a design proposal is made for a textile-to-organic photovoltaic (OPV) integration, performed during the weaving process, to form a modular structural fabric with solar-energy-harnessing potential to be used in textile architecture applications. Laboratory testing is extensively used to determine both the fabrics' and the solar film’s strengths as well as verify the design procedure.

The steel sector is responsible for 4-5% of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the world. Reusing structural steel elements can potentially decrease the need for the production of new steel. However, designing a load-bearing structure with reusable elements poses challenges to the design process. The starting point of the process is different due to a limited availability of structural elements. The design of the load-bearing structure should be based on the measurements of the available reusable elements, while traditionally the amount of elements and their measurements were based on the design. However, the freedom in a design is often limited by certain architectural and structural constraints. Therefore, the focus of this thesis is on how to organize an optimization process in which the aim is to design a load-bearing structure containing the least amount of new steel by means of implementing reusable elements, while taking into account the architectural and structural constraints. In the optimization method developed in this study, a primary design for a load-bearing structure functions as an input. The method consists of four big steps: the definition of the geometry, the assignment of (reusable) elements, structural calculations and the formulation of results. The goal is to assign reusable elements which are respecting the given constraints: the minimum and maximum UC-value allowed and the maximum deviation in length. The output is a modified design in which reusable elements are implemented, in a way that lowers the amount of steel required to realize the design. By performing a case study, the model is tested and the influence of the constraints and the implemented stock can be determined. Several analyses are conducted, using three different stocks. Stock 1 and stock 2 can be considered more diverse than stock 3.  The characteristics of the resulting designs are influenced by the relation between the stock and the original design. For the more diverse stock, there are only results whenever the minimum allowed UC-value is set to 0.01. While the required amount of steel lowers (up to 79% for stock 1 and 74% for stock 2), the actual UC-values of the implemented elements can be considered low and the change in design can be considered big (up to 19 out of 24 angles in the beam-configuration changing more than 10%). For the less diverse stock, all analyses give results, independent of the values for the constraints. In this case, the results UC-value are high compared to the results related to stock 1 and 2, and the changes in design are less (0 changing angles). Besides, all elements can be reused, which lowers the amount of required new steel to zero.  Therefore, applying the optimization method developed in this study to a design for a load-bearing structure results in a modified design in which the amount of new steel required to realize the design is minimized. However, the actual UC-values corresponding to the different elements and the changes in the design are dependent on the available stock and the constraints.

Over the last years the critical state of existing quay wall structures have gained a lot of concern. With the focus on urban quay walls in Amsterdam, a lot of aspects could play a role which limit the possibilities for both the design and the construction. The focus in this research is placed at the structural efficiency of the design for renovation projects. By using a parametric approach (with Grasshopper/Rhino) in the preliminary design phase, a design solution with the lowest use of material can be found. From the total of embankment within the management of the municipality, a scope has been defined focusing on the most critical quays with respect to the limited design space and high expected loads. Within the assumptions made, the developed parametric tool can be used to indicate an efficient design solution for which the positioning of the piles, the diameter of the piles and the thickness of the floor follow from the location-dependent input. The indication of the effect of geometrical properties with respect to the defined objective (minimizing the material use) could help in the consideration of the design requirements. Apart from indicating the savings that can be made on the material use by improving the structural efficiency of urban quay wall design, this research also contributes to proof of the power to be found in a parametric approach. The repetitive character in especially large-scale assignments as the renovation of Amsterdam's quay walls makes it a highly appropriate method.

Problem definition: In the car park industry, a new trend has emerged, shifting the demand for parking from permanent one-of-a-kind parking structures towards temporary modular structures (Drenth, 2020). Meanwhile, the building industry faces a transition into a more sustainable industry. This requires rethinking of the design process, taking into account possible reuse of a building or its elements as well as potential use of different materials. Timber is a renewable material and as a result of developments in timber engineering, now allows the construction of taller and larger structures. Given these trends and challenges, the objective of this thesis is to provide a structural system proof of concept for a temporary multi-storey car park, using timber as primary structural material. Approach: A broad literature study provides background information on the various relevant topics and is followed by a refinement of the objective, substantiated by two sub-studies. This has resulted in two sub-goals: the minimization of total deck height (< 700 mm) and minimization of the structural systems weight (column load < 1,000 kN). A proof of concept is developed through a parametric study with structural validation into four main design variants (consisting of a deck and framing system), for which the effect of altering four geometric parameters (parking deck span, use of struts, distance between columns in transverse direction and minimum distance between joists) on these sub-goals is studied. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis is performed on the effect of altering the requirements concerning fire-safety, vibrations and deflections on the deck height and weight. Finally, the proof of concept’s performance is compared to five alternative modular and/or timber car park concepts in a case study. Evaluation: It is concluded, that design variants using long-span deck systems result in a relatively small deck height, but high self-weight. A CLT rib deck should be applied under “standard” assessment criteria, but significant reductions in deck height (31%) and weight (49%) can be achieved by using LVL rib decks when vibrations are not considered and deformation limits are increased. The total deck height of design variants with short-span decks, which use solid LVL panels, highly depends on the supporting framing system, but its self-weight is roughly halve of the long-span design variants. The effect of alternative assessment criteria on design variants with short-span decks is rather limited. It is concluded that the use of struts significantly reduces the total deck height (17-30%) and structures weight (5-11%) and a transverse column distance of a single parking bay width is preferred. The distance between joists is of less relevance, but a bigger parking deck span increases both deck height and total weight. The resulting proof of concept consists out of a short-span solid LVL deck system, which spans two times 2.5 m (single parking bay width). It is supported by glulam main girders, spanning the entire parking deck, which are simply supported by a set of columns at a transverse distance of 2.5 m and are additionally supported by slanted struts between the columns and main girders. The results from the case study show, that the total deck height of the proof of concept (666 mm) is smaller that the sub-goal of 700 mm and comparable to alternatives with decks made of steel, concrete and GFRP. Furthermore it is 40% thinner than the alternative in timber as a result of the use of LVL and struts. In terms of weight, the use of timber is much lighter than using concrete decks (<25%) and only 17% heavier than the extremely lightweight GFRP decks. Furthermore, it results in the smallest loads on the foundation (678 kN which is smaller than the sub-goal of 1,000 kN). A first extremely simplified durability analysis on amounts of embodied carbon in the main structural elements indicates timber has significantly lower amounts of embodied carbon in comparison to the alternative concepts. Implications: Based on the results presented, it is concluded that timber is applicable for almost all main structural elements of a temporary and modular multi-storey car park. The case study has shown that the proof of concept can compete with alternative modular car park concepts in terms of deck height and outperforms most alternatives in terms of the structures weight. It is also indicated, that timber has the potential to significantly improve the performance of a structure in terms of sustainability. For future research, it is advised to further develop the proof of concept, focussing on the connections and durability risks and study the incorporation of circular design strategies into the design and construction process of the proof of concept. Furthermore, alternative assessment criteria should be validated. Finally, it is advised to study the potential use of other innovative sustainable building materials like BauBuche and make a detailed LCA study assessing the performance on sustainability.

The importance of joints in timber structures is strongly emphasized in the existing literature (e.g., Blaß & Sandhaas, 2017; McLain, 1998). The aim of this project is to provide insight into whether the cross-sectional sizes of the member are dictated by the dimensional sizes of the laterally loaded dowel-type connection or the strength and stiffness requirements of the member itself in timber frame structures. In this research project, a parametric study is performed. The parameters in this study represent the global frame structure and the laterally loaded dowel-type connections. Together, these parameters form a parametric model that lays the foundation for the tool that is constructed in this study. This tool is built in order to generate a number of unique configurations that fulfill the design verifications. Using the tool, two analyses are performed. In analysis 1, the effect of different distances between the secondary beams is examined. In analysis 2, the effect of different grid sizes of the column in the frame structure is studied. In both analyses, two member sizes are first selected based on the criteria 'lowest cross-sectional area' (LCA) and 'lowest height beam' (LHB). These two member sizes form the starting point for generating different configurations of laterally loaded dowel-type connections. In this research project, three factors are found to contribute to the largest reduction in the number of unique configurations for all constructed cases examined in analysis 1 and 2. These three factors are small column widths combined with high shear forces, the effect of a 'compact' member, and the effect of 'brittle' failure mechanisms on the LCA-members, which was selected as a design constraint in this study. These factors may be relevant for engineers to take into account when designing the structural members. However, in this study, no constructed case is found in which the member needs to be redesigned in order to fit the connection. This means that one can conclude that the dimensional size of the structural member is dictated by the strength and stiffness requirements of the member itself. Important to note is that, although a large number of parameters was incorporated into this study, not all potentially relevant parameters were taken into account. When incorporating factors such as the horizontal forces in the connection, the effect of shrinkage and swelling, the level of difficultly in terms of assembling the joints on site, and adjustments to guarantee a certain level of fire resistance, certain turning points in the dimensional interaction between joints and members may be found. Finally, beyond allowing for the dimensional interaction between joints and members to be studied, the tool constructed in this study is also valuable to practical engineering. The large amount of data that is generated by the tool allows the engineer to explore the different possible configurations in the process of designing joints. By connecting the output of the tool to the Design Explorer interface, the engineer has the opportunity to search through all the individual characteristics or a specific range and examine different possible connections in an efficient manner. One of the main contributions of this research project, therefore, lies in the tool itself.

To lessen our influence on the environment, we are moving towards solutions that can meet our needs of shelter, nutrition, mobility, communication, and health with little to no energy or resources. In the construction industry, adaptive façades have gained attention for their capacity to adapt to changing conditions. These façades can modify their state in response to varying factors such as temperature and sunlight. This adaptability offers potential benefits in energy efficiency and occupant comfort, making them significant in architectural advancement. Despite being promising, these technologies are seldom used in buildings because they consist of numerous components and intricate mechanisms that can hinder their overall lifespan. To find more straightforward solutions for these systems, designers and researchers have focused on Smart Materials in combination with passive strategies. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), in particular, have found applications in diverse designs owing to their dual functionality as temperature sensors and actuators. SMAs have the remarkable ability to ‘remember’ their original shape and can revert to it when subjected to specific temperatures. This unique trait enables them to serve as both sensors, by detecting temperature changes, and actuators, by initiating shape changes in response to those shifts. However, current SMA-based sunshade designs do not provide visual contact with the exterior, as they continuously block the occupant’s field of view. This work aims at lowering the mechanical complexity of SMA-based sunshades while maintaining thermal comfort and visual contact with the exterior. The first part highlights the significance of precise control strategies for effective sunshade designs. The research emphasizes the importance of tailored control methods aligned with climate conditions. The conclusion underscores that an optimal sunshade design must balance cooling demand reduction, thermal comfort maintenance, and opening hours. Mechanical designs should minimize components while ensuring maximal stroke capabilities. The mechanical design of the counterAKT system exhibited promising stroke results despite not reaching the 200% benchmark. Further research avenues are suggested for textiles and Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs). Integration of findings from both materials is essential for realizing a complete working counterAKT system. Nodal thermal modeling provided insights into the major factors influencing SMA temperature in the counterAKT system. Solar radiation and convective heat transfer were identified as key contributors. The conclusion recommends future research to shift reliance from outdoor air temperature to solar radiation by enhancing emissivity, reducing convection losses, and concentrating solar radiation on the SMA. Finally, The system’s feasibility is demonstrated through a small-scale prototype, affirming its practical viability and potential applicability.

To reduce the construction industry’s negative influence on global climate, emissions related to concrete consumption need to be addressed. This implies reducing the amount concrete used, by creating material-efficient structures. One of concrete’s main advantages is that it can be moulded into virtually any shape. Despite the fact that modern digital design tools enable the effortless design and calculation of lightweight and graceful structures, this potential often goes unrealised. This can be attributed to the challenges associated with constructing intricate and custom geometries using conventional formwork techniques that depend on single-use cut timber or milled foam. Not only do these methods make the construction of these types of structures labour and cost intensive, they also cause them to be wasteful. KnitCrete, which uses knitted technical textiles as stay-in-place moulds for concrete structures, has proven to be a solution for building doubly curved structures, eliminating the need for time-consuming, costly, and wasteful moulds. However, due to its inherent high flexibility and the challenges of predicting and controlling the geometry during the casting process, the technology relies on coating procedures using high-strength cement paste coating to stiffen the geometry before concrete can be poured. This research addresses both issues and proposes a design approach, which models the deformation behaviour of the uncoated knitted formwork under concrete pressure to determine the final geometry of flexibly formed concrete structures, hence gaining better understanding on the deformation behaviour of knitted textile formworks and bypassing the stiffening steps during fabrication. Developing a method to predict the final geometry of flexibly formed concrete structures involves various research disciplines, including material science, and structural mechanics. The research approach is divided into three parts. The first part investigates the stress-strain relationship of various textiles with different knitting patterns, alongside the rheological and mechanical strength properties of different cementitious mixtures. The second stage focuses on developing (semi-)analytical models to predict the deflection behaviour of membranes subjected to varying boundaries, loads, and material properties. Finally, the accuracy of the models are validated by the construction of multiple prototypes. In conclusion, this thesis introduces a fabrication system that exploits the deflection behaviour of flexible formworks to create funicular shell structures and lays the foundation for implementing (semi-)analytical approaches to model these deformations.

Glass, a transparent and durable material with significant structural potential, is extensively used for architectural and structural applications in buildings. Existing approaches mostly use float glass, which is confined by planar designs, resulting in two-dimensional facades. Several examples of curved glass applications exist which, due to the limitations of current fabrication techniques, result in repetitive panels. Emerging architectural trends demand more fluid, three-dimensional freeform shapes, which present glass shaping processes cannot provide without incurring excessive costs and material waste in the fabrication process. Research in other materials shows that flexible moulds are able to produce complex geometrical results. More recently, knitted fabric formworks have proven to be very successful in creating concrete shells of high complexity and low material usage and waste. This thesis aims to address the gap by investigating the viability of using knitted basalt moulds for glass slumping, a novel fabrication approach that might allow for the manufacture of customizable, freeform curved glass components. The research investigates the possibility of this technology to accomplish extreme geometries while remaining simple and cost-effective in mould manufacture. The methodology of this thesis consists of a thorough literature research, experimental testing and a design application. The literature study investigates and compares present glass curving technologies and also the moulds used for each method to visual, geometrical, structural, and sustainability criteria. Flexible mould applications in other materials are also researched and compared to the ones used for glass. The second part of the thesis is an experimental exploration. Basalt yarn is chosen to create hand-woven and CNC-knitted moulds to test with glass slumping. The experimental phase involves testing several knitted basalt moulds and combinations with coatings to determine ideal material combinations in order to improve surface quality and geometric precision. After reflecting on the experiment results, experimental data is used to create a final prototype attempting to achieve geometrical control and repeatability to prove the potential of the proposed fabrication technique. Finally, the third part of the thesis is a design application. Casa da Musica in Porto is chosen as a case study to recreate its glass façade in a freeform shape. Connection details between the glass panels are designed for the proposed facade design and the proposed fabrication of each panel is showcased.

Traditional methods of building with concrete are materially wasteful, highly polluting, and often structurally inefficient. The vast global consumption of concrete plays a large role in the construction industry’s negative effects on the environment, necessitating a significant change in the way we design and build with concrete. The fluid properties of concrete combined with the flexibility of knit textile formwork makes it possible to shape concrete into complex, innovative structures that drastically reduce material consumption and waste. KnitCrete, which employs CNC-knitted textiles as flexible formwork for casting with concrete, has demonstrated the extraordinary potential of this technology to efficiently fabricate complex geometries without the need for costly, time-consuming rigid molds. The objective of this research is to develop a pattern-specific knowledge base to support the future design of innovative architectural forms and structures using CNC-knit textile formwork. Through three main parts, the research approach investigates the implications of pattern selection on the behavior of the resulting concrete forms. The study employs a combination of information-based and inspiration-based design research methodologies. In the first phase, a comprehensive pattern repository is developed which catalogues relevant information for 21 different knit patterns. In the second phase, rigorous testing of each pattern under hydrostatic loading is performed and a deformation analysis is performed. The third phase involves an exploration of pattern combinations, supported by the information gathered in phases one and two, which demonstrates the potential of this technology to create complex or double curved geometries. Key findings reveal that pattern selection significantly influences the structural and aesthetic properties of the resulting concrete forms. The comparison between warp and weft properties highlights distinct behaviors under hydrostatic loading with significant implications for flexible formwork design. Challenges in the precise calibration of combined patterns and controlling deformation during casting underscore the complexity of implementing CNC-knit formwork. Contributions to this field include advancements in understanding knit textile behavior, a replicable research approach, and interdisciplinary connections between textile engineering, material studies, and architectural design. In summary, this research lays a robust groundwork for future research and design in the field of CNC-knit textile formwork with a specific focus on knit pattern behavior.

Tensioned membrane structures are increasingly in demand, because of their ability to cover large spaces with minimum use of material. The material’s mechanical properties play a key role in the design of such structures. The shear behaviour is one of the main influential properties of woven textiles during complex deformations, such as the ones in doubly curved structures where the change in curvature challenges the shear-bearing capacity of the textile during its service life. This study provides a methodology to characterise a novel uncoated woven solar cell integrated textile for tensile structure application. It consists of investigating the limit angle, that avoids damage to the inserted solar strips, and the determination of the shear stiffness of the material. To evaluate the applicability of the material, different mechanical properties are assessed. Mono-axial, picture frame and bi-axial tests were used to determine the strength, elasticity and shear modulus. All results have been validated by comparison with existing experimental data of similar architectural textiles. This research introduces a method of investigation of shear properties of uncoated textiles that can be followed to evaluate other uncoated textiles. In addition, it is now possible to start a preliminary design of a tensile structure with the newly developed material. It is the first step in the introduction ofthe new building material.

This research-through-design explores 3D knitting for load-bearing, transformable structures using a Material-Driven Design approach. 3D knitting is a low-waste textile production method that allows for highly adaptable designs and an iterative design process. Current literature is studied in various domains, exhibiting the knowledge gap on development of 3D knitted, load-bearing, transformable structures on the scale of a sitting object. A tinkering phase resulted in a Design Space, demonstrating the range of possible materials, structures, geometries and transformability methods. Multiple concepts are developed to define the relationship between the parameters. The final demonstrator is the ARCHETYPE.98, a sitting object showing the adaptability, load-bearing capacity, transformability, material expressions and streamlined, low-waste production process of 3D knitted, transformable, load-bearing objects. The ARCHETYPE.98 is a bending-active textile hybrid structure. The load-bearing capacity is evaluated through a technical evaluation which exhibited the framework material to require improvement. User research exhibited the novelty of the design. The transformability of the sitting objects allows for eight variations of the aesthetics within one product. The sitting surfaces are highly adaptable through the knitted material, enabling personalization of the aesthetics and ergonomics of the chair. The development and production process of the ARCHETYPE.98 show the need for modelling software for knit structures and textile hybrid structures to improve the technical performance and reduce the number of required iterations. Further research into the frame material and bursting strength of knit structures related to the yarn materials could improve the load-bearing capacities of the object and bring forward the limitations of the applied rigidifying method.

Space frame structures today are a common choice of load bearing system for achieving long spans with minimal interruptions of the floor plan beneath. On top of that, the versatility of space frame structures to conform to any shape makes them particularly interesting today, especially in the context of free-form geometry which is becoming ever more common. In structural design, and especially for space frame design, the creation of a structural model is quite a labour-intensive process, and it is highly beneficial to automate the structural model generation. Furthermore, the design of such structures can benefit from an exhaustive preliminary design space investigation. Thus, this MSc thesis deals with the parametric design, engineering and optimization of space frame structure typologies based on different initial surface discretization of the input free-form surface geometry, and different topological relations of space frame top and bottom layers. These topological relations are based on Conway operators most relevant for the structural patterns occurring in space frame structures specifically, dual, kis and ambo. These operators are always applied on an initial or seed meshing of the desired free-form surface, to create different space frame layouts for them to be compared by their structural performance, primarily in terms of mass. The scope of initial meshing options is kept to tri, quad, and skeleton-based quad meshing. These three different types of mesh options, combined with the three possible Conway operator options, constitute the main nine combinations for each case study example. In essence, every space frame design, due to the linear and geometric nature of the structural elements (nodes and bars seen as points and lines), can be considered as a literal structural translation of the final desired free-form shape. This free-form shape is always tessellated or discretized in certain configurations. The aim was to gain more insight into how the initial tessellation affects the behaviour of space frame structures as well as how the process of optimization of such structures is influenced regarding the initial tessellation. To gain insight into this influence qualitatively and quantitatively a parametric tool was developed to conduct case studies. The tool allows for the generation and cross-section optimization of various space frame structures based on an input surface. This parametric tool was developed using Rhino, Grasshopper, and karamba3D structural analysis plugins for grasshopper.

For the first time since the 1970s, concrete plans are in motion to bring humans back to the Moon through the Artemis programme. The dawning era of space exploration aims to set the groundwork for long-term off-Earth settlement, with sights on bringing the first humans to Mars. In order to provide a safe means of inhabiting extraterrestrial (ET) environments, a self-supporting habitat shield concept has been developed by the Specialist Modelling Group at Foster + Partners, which is based on the use of mechanically interlocking masonry manufactured from in-situ resources. Significant progress must still be made in the structural design and validation of such systems, however, before they can be safely implemented. Due to the novelty of the proposed structure, existing research does not provide numerical evidence of its stability under self-weight, or under seismic loading. Research in this direction is valuable, as it explores alternatives to popular design concepts based on monolithic additive manufacturing and addresses research gaps related to the analysis of mechanically interlocking structures. The aim of this project is to provide novel insight into the stability of self-supporting dry-stone vaults under the influence of microgravity and ground motions. This is achieved through a three-part analysis approach, which starts with an investigation into the fundamental structural behaviour of dry-stone, Nubian-type vaults based on a series of parametric studies. Key geometric parameters of the vaults are varied, and the resulting distinct element models are subjected to quasi-static pushover-type analysis in 3DEC. The parametric studies indicate what configuration of the vault geometry can maximise seismic capacity. This optimal vault geometry is modelled in Rhino using geometric constraint solving, which is used to produce a model which can be assembled from mechanically interlocking components. Through pushover-type testing and dynamic time history analysis, the performance of the resulting vault model is assessed with respect to possible moonquake loading. The final part of the design process accounts for uncertainties in material properties by conducting sensitivity studies, which indicate what degree of variation in performance is possible. After completing the three mains sets of analysis needed to design a moonquake-resistant vault, several comparative analyses are carried out to provide context to the structural performance of the Nubian-type vault. The first of these additional investigations models an equivalent monolithic vault geometry in DIANA and conducts finite element analysis to determine its capacity for lateral acceleration. The second comparative study determines how covering the vault in loose regolith may influence its structural performance. The third study investigates how the variation of gravity affects the stability and seismic performance of the vault. Several key findings are obtained in this project, leading to an understanding of the structural behaviour of Nubian-type vaults and how they may be a possible solution to shielding demands in ET contexts. The final vault model was shown to remain stable under a uniform lateral acceleration equivalent to the PGA for a possible moonquake with a 475 year return period. Dynamic analysis conducted using an artificial ground motion record obtained for the same return period produced less favourable results, resulting in partial collapse of the outermost six courses of the vault. Computational constraints necessitated the implementation of an undamped analysis, however, so these results are considered to be conservative. Further analysis is needed, but these results suggest that with minor adjustments, the vault may be able to safely resist moonquake loading. The comparative monolithic vault analysis demonstrates that an additively manufactured vault may provide slightly better resistance to static lateral acceleration than a component-based vault. When considering the structural redundancy and energy dissipation necessary for safe seismic design, however, the discrete vault is expected to perform better. Results show that covering the vault in loose regolith is expected to reduce its overall stiffness. Conclusions about changes in stability cannot be made with confidence due to modelling issues at the interface between the regolith and the structure. By studying the influence of gravitational variation on the vault, results indicate that it may perform favourably on the Earth or on Mars, though the possibility of material damage must be studied further.

Nowadays, with the rapid development of 3D printing technology, more and more applications of this technology can be seen in daily life, and architecture is one of the important directions. There are already a lot of creative buildings completed by 3D printing in the world, and many of them have already been put into use. One of the big challenges of this technology is that since the properties of freshly extruded concrete are not high enough, it becomes necessary to use reinforcement strategies to make the concrete meet the requirements of 3D printing. One of the common reinforcement strategies is achieved by adding fibers to the concrete. In this study, through finite element modeling and analysis of a 3D concrete printed farmhouse located in Wujiazhuang, China, the whole process of 3D printing of the farmhouse, as well as the internal forces of the structure when it enters into use after the printing is completed was analyzed, and the effect of the application of fiber reinforced concrete in the whole process of 3D printing, as well as the optimization strategy was shown in detail. The literature study summarizes the current state of development of additive manufacturing and 3D printing, as well as the different types classified through the process; introduces FEM and describes its application in 3D printing; describes the process of making fiber reinforced concrete and its advantages over the material properties of normal concrete; reveals the changes in material properties of materials used for 3D printing in the early stages; and describes the field situation of the Wujiazhuang farmhouse and the printing process. The deformation and stress distribution of the whole structure under the use state had been analyzed by linear static analysis in finite element software, and the material distribution of the structure had been preliminarily determined. After that, the whole printing process of the structure was analyzed by stage and structural nonlinear analysis, and the key issues such as how to simulate the truss structure wall and what parameters will affect the number of printable layers of the structure were analyzed by building multiple models. Finally, the material distribution and printing solution of the structure were given. The results given were further modified by continuing to reduce the deformation of the structure to meet the code requirements for the displacement of the formwork structure. Several methods were given to minimize the deformation to meet the code requirements from two different perspectives: the geometry of the structure and the material properties. The reliability of the modeling in this study and the accuracy of the results were verified by using finite element software modeling to analyze a 3D printing model from a paper and comparing the results. The conclusions of this study and the possible applications of the conclusions in 3D printing were finally given, as well as possible directions for future follow-up research.

Cement production is responsible for 8% of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions [1]. Reducing this share will be a strenuous task as the global population and urbanization rates are increasing and, therefore, the need for concrete will remain high [2], [3]. Simultaneously, despite the alarming statistic, a vast majority of demolished concrete buildings are structurally sound [4]. Therefore, this thesis aspires to push beyond the abundance of new concrete and outlines a design workflow for using reclaimed concrete. To enhance the material savings, the workflow focuses on double-curved, compression-only structures that benefit from the principles of structural geometry. To implement the workflow, a novel stacking algorithm is designed using COMPAS [5], an open-source Python framework. It positions quadrilateral voussoirs on a funicular geometry’s thrust surface in a sequential one-by-one manner. The placement is guided by three global design principles. First, a pair of opposing voussoir sides are aligned parallel to the force flow while the remaining pair, which represents the load-transferring faces, is aligned perpendicular to it. This is done to prevent sliding failure. Second, the thrust surface is confined within the middle third of the voussoir to prevent the formation of hinges and cracks. Third, voussoirs are cut into hexagonal shapes and staggering is ensured among neighbouring voussoirs to create an interlocking geometry. Once a structure is completed, its stability is ensured by finding a compression-only equilibrium using the Rigid Block Equilibrium method [6]. The algorithm is then studied using various stocks with different voussoir dimensions of both regular and irregular side lengths, various deployment strategies that enable the user to customize the launch of the algorithm, and different thrust surface shapes. It is primarily assessed what fraction of the initial concrete volume can be retained in the structure. It was found that on average 47% of volume per voussoir is retained and that voussoirs of regular dimensions retain approximately 5% more of the initial volume. Minor differences exist in the results among different thrust surfaces with shapes of more uniform force flow retaining more concrete. Furthermore, smaller voussoirs mostly sized 0.7x0.7x0.2m required 20% less volume to construct a shell than a stock of 1.0x1.0x0.2m voussoirs. At the same time, the smaller stock required almost double the amount of voussoirs, thus, indicating competing goals that require the decision-making of the designer. Next, high-level waste minimization was performed by checking if offcuts could be used to create other voussoirs from the remaining structure or if they could be returned to the stock for future placement. A pessimistic and an optimistic scenario were studied and it was found that 70-85% of the initial voussoir volume can be efficiently retained within the shell and the stock. These results served as the basis for reflecting on how the stacking algorithm influences the suggested workflow by bringing design and fabrication-specific constraints to an earlier design phase. It is described that to improve the retained volume the designer can, first, alter their way of deploying the algorithm, second, modify the input geometry, third, custom select what stock is used for placement, and, fourth, inform the contractor of the level of detail to which a building should be deconstructed and post-processed. Thus, a designer is brought closer to the construction process, and incentives for a more collaborative cross-disciplinary workflow are outlined. Finally, suggestions are made on how to improve the functionality and efficiency of the algorithm. The primary conclusion made is to expand the criteria based on which a voussoir is selected for placement. An emphasis is directed towards using criteria such as distance-to-staggering, local radius of curvature, local force flow, and dimensions of the surrounding voussoirs to limit the offcuts that will be created to ensure complete tessellation. Overall, this study provides a workflow that is enabled by a stacking algorithm. It outlines how to design double-curved, compression-only structures and how their design can influence the entire workflow.

Concrete is the most used building material in the world. Its success can be linked back to its mouldability, durability and low cost. Unfortunately, current conventional concrete pedestrian bridge designs do not benefit from these key features and still require bulky shaped cross-sections, whereby part of the concrete does not contribute to the structural strength. This study assesses the potential reduction of material use by combining shot-crete 3D printing (SC3DP) with the application of textile formworks for the production of form found pedestrian bridges, instead of the conventional design and fabrication process. The present thesis looks at conventional concrete pedestrian bridge design and form found concrete for it examined for four different spans: 5 m, 10 m, 20 m and 45 m. The designs are tested for full vertical loading, asymmetric vertical loading, and buckling. The amount of material required for each span and load case are determined and compared with each other. The results show that the form found concrete pedestrian bridge designs only re-quire a fraction (between 13.0% and 20.0%) of the amount of concrete used for the same design with conventional approaches. The form found concrete pedestrian bridge designs become more material efficient than the conventional designs as the span increases. Dur-ing the calculation process it was ascertained that the conventional concrete pedestrian bridge design cannot reach spans larger than 20 m. It was also observed that the concrete thickness of the shorter span form found concrete pedestrian bridges (5 m and 10 m) is governed by the asymmetric load case and the concrete thickness of the longer span form found concrete pedestrian bridges (20 m and 45 m) is governed by the buckling case. Over-all it can be concluded that the form found concrete pedestrian bridge design is superior with regards to the material use, when compared to the conventional concrete pedestrian bridge design.