Glass is gaining popularity as a structural material, this is mainly based on its transparent character. But due to its brittle failure behaviour the safety of these structures is an issue. Several concepts are found to guarantee the safety during the development of its structural application. One of these developments is to reinforce glass with other materials, this concept is known from concrete structures. After fracture of the glass (initial failure), the reinforcement will function as a tension element in order for the beam to maintain its integrity. This creates an additional load transfer mechanism, preventing total collapse of the structural system (ultimate failure) if designed properly. The objective of this thesis is to further develop reinforced glass beams. In Chapter 1 this is started by defining an abstract concept called the ideal glass beam. This concept is defined as a glass beam which has increased initial failure resistance, ability to maintain its integrity, freedom in manufacturing and all without disturbing the clean transparency of the glass. For the reason of transparency potential all concepts are fibreglass based. Freedom in manufacturing is realised by the use of fibreglass fabric which can be cut as desired and laminated together with the glass panes, just as is done with fully integrated (GFRP) reinforcement. This results in the three reinforcement concepts; post-tensioned fibreglass reinforcement; fibreglass fabric reinforcement; and transparent fibreglass reinforcement. All these three concepts are not yet or only partially developed and thus require research. However only post-tension and fibreglass fabric are chosen to be elaborated in this thesis. The application of transparent fibreglass is briefly discussed in order to assess its plausibility. Next to these design concepts, some issues exist regarding numerical calculations of glass systems. Most non-linear analysis run into convergence problems. Or computational intensive methods to account for the snap-back constitutive relation. This is due to the relative low fracture energy and high tensile strength with respect to concrete. A new kind of analysing method is in development which uses a series of linear analysis together with a damage model, reducing the material properties at each iteration. This method is called sequential linear analysis (SLA). The stability if this method creates the opportunity to analyse how alterations in design and numerical model influence the performance. These alterations come from differences in modelling approach in previous research, developments in SLA from research in concrete and design possibilities. The design strategy and philosophy of a reinforced glass beams is different from the current design approach, where additional panes are used to prevent ultimate failure. What these differences are and how a reinforced glass beam should be designed is elaborated in Chapter 3. Here the initial and ultimate failure strength capacities are discussed, how their resistance in affected and how they should be designed in order to create a safe system. In Chapter 4 the origin, feasibility and validation of the concepts are elaborated. In order to validate the concepts and numerical method some validation goals are drafted partially consisting on the former mentioned design philosophy. These goals result in desired data requirements which is subsequently used to describe the experiments to acquire this data. Initially only two bending experiments are required, for validation of both post-tension and fibreglass reinforcement. Both are validated using a reference experiment, for post-tension this is a specimen without applied normal force and the fibreglass fabric reinforcement is validated using integrated GFRP strips. In addition to these experiments tensile data of the different reinforcements is obtained to be used as input during numerical modelling. Also pull-out experiments are done for the fibreglass reinforcements to have a more direct comparing approach and to spread the risk of unsuccessful execution of either experiment. In Chapter 5 the experiments are designed based on the former mentioned requirements using analytical calculations. This is done to ensure theoretical feasibility of the experiments and to estimate the behaviour. The post-tensioned design consist of GFRP strips adhered on top and bottom after tensioning in order for them to function as reinforcement. No eccentricity is used te prevent crushing of the glass edges as the tensioning is introduced by head sections on either edge. These steel components function as actuators to introduce the normal force on the glass. The fibreglass fabric beams are designed to have equal ultimate failure resistance as the reference specimen. In the experimental research in Chapter 6 the validation goals are repeated and each experiment is treated. Starting with the tensile experiments, ordinary force displacement experiments are executed on the Fibrolux GFRP strips. These experiments failed at lower values of tensile strength and Youngs’ modulus than expected based on the values given by the manufacturer. This is explained by stress concentrations due to the rectangular geometry and relative low uni-directional (UD) fabric within the composite, according to the manufacturer. The fibreglass composite experiment also failed at a lower resistance than expected. After failure loose fibres are visible implying full saturation is not achieved. Using the theoretical strength of the SentryGlass (SG) it is calculated that approximately 30% of the fibres contributed in the strength resistance. The pull-out experiments are designed as a double pull-out with one lower resistance side which should fail by de-bonding. The difference in resistance can be compared with a reference set which has equal shear resistance to analyse the bonding performance. But due to the same saturation issue as the tensile fibreglass specimen, these fibreglass specimen also failed earlier. Thus making it unable to compare the different reinforcements. The GFRO pull-out specimen did fail properly as is expected from the reference set. Furthermore, the bending experiment using fibreglass fabric reinforcement did perform accordingly. Despite the same internal slipping of the fibreglass, the specimen showed almost sufficient ultimate resistance. After the occurrence of the first crack, the resistance increases again but after some deflection a decrease is observed. This is the consequence of the same internal slip due partial saturation. The final experiment regarding post-tensioning had a fault during the post-tensioning process, resulting in an insufficient posttension force. The experiments did therefore shown no increase in initial failure. Although the post-tension experiment did not succeed, still a GFRP reinforced beam was experimented and a different failure was observed. This different failure mode occurred due to the low stiffness of the reinforcement resulting in high crack opening and earlier failure of the system. The numerical analysis is done in Chapter 7. This chapter contains two parts, first the analysis part and secondly the validation part. During the first part a study is done on different parameter and design considerations. This study is based on an experimental data set from former research, this set is also used on a sequential linear analysis (SLA) and non-linear analysis (NLA) validation and is therefore the ideal case to advance the developments. A reference model is made based on starting points from previous research and each aspect is applied on this reference model to analysis the performance differences. This performance differences are analysed based on four aspects: Resistance, deformation, crack density and amount of cracks. After each analysis a conclusion is made using these performance aspects and is graded with respect to the reference case. Two major objectives in this study is to implement the lacking resistance of the SG interlayer and post-tensioning. For the interlayer, the characteristics of SLA are used to construct an equivalent post-cracked resistance using the reduction branches. The post-tension should be implemented as initial stress/strain conditions but as SLA is still in development this is not yet available. A two solutions are found based on the transformation of the material properties. Both result in the increased initial failure, but only one represents the post-cracked behaviour of a post-tension beam in the correct manner. The numerical models of the reference case and post-tension experiments are validated in the second part of this chapter. Initially the fibreglass fabric experiment were planned to be used as validation, but this is not done. Based on the complex behaviour of the reinforcement, numerical analysis of this experiment does not contributed to the objective. The validation of the numerical analysis is done based on the deviation which represents the difference in ultimate resistance with respect to the experiment. For the reference case the deviation in resistance and deflection to the experiments decreased when the findings are applied to the reference model. However the crack pattern is still an issue as T-shaped crack occurred where V-shaped cracks were expected. Also in the validation of the post-tension experiment this V-crack is not present, but due to the absence of SG the cracking pattern is lot more conform the observations in the experiment. This case not only has small deviations in resistance and deflection, but failed in equal manner as the specimen. All results are summarised and discussed in Chapter 8, from this discussion the conclusions regarding the stated research objectives in the outline are drawn in Chapter 9. In this chapter is concluded that the suitability of GFRP post-tensioning could not be validated due to the fault in the process and the low Young’s modulus resulted in higher crack opening and earlier reaching of ultimate failure. The fibreglass fabric did achieve a fair ultimate failure resistance but as they did not have a higher resistance as the initial fracture they did not pass the validation criteria. This was due to insufficient saturation of fibreglass with SG, causing the fibres to slip on one each other, hence not able to reach their full capacity. The analysis of different aspects using SLA resulted in a development in analysing method. Using a grading system the influences on the performance of each aspect are indicated. Creating insight of the influences of different design and modelling considerations. To finalise some recommendations are in place, as this is only the beginning of a broad subject. Obviously, it is recommended to research the third concept as this could not be included in this thesis, to even further develop the ideal reinforced glass beam. But regarding the post-tensioning, more effective systems are recommended as the initial failure increase in the post-tensioned design was quite low, for example, higher eccentricity and more stable structures. Solutions for higher saturation in the fibreglass fabric to decrease the slip and increase the resistance. Regarding the numerical analysis, implementation of SLA in 3D brick elements and a better more physical correct plasticity model are recommended. Next to these independent subjects reinforced glass in general requires the definition of different failure modes and the prevention of brittle failure modes. Also would it be important to perform force-controlled experiments, possibly in combination with an impact load. Since this is the major reason to apply reinforcements. More recommendations and conclusions are found in Chapter 9. So in conclusion all the independent subjects converge to the contribution in the developments in reinforced glass beams. The freedom and benefits in application of integrated fabric reinforcement are known and more knowledge is obtained regarding design of reinforced glass structures and influences of (in)correct numerical modelling.

Since the oil crises during the 1970s, there has been a growing awareness of thermal losses through windows in buildings. Nowadays, double-glazing is a common product for moderate maritime climate. In the Netherlands two permit requirements are calculations regarding nearly zero energy and environmental performance of a building. In order to reach nearly zero energy buildings, triple glazing and even quadruple glazing is considered as possibility. This has negative affects on the environmental performance of a building, because glass does need a lot of resources for production. A solution to that challenge could be the application of thin glass sandwiches, a structural sandwich with two ultra-thin faces (0.5mm) of glass. The structural sandwich is common in the aviation industry to stiffen and strengthen an element without adding significant weight. Downside is the increased conduction through the core material. Question is: to what extent can a thin glass sandwich panel, compared to regular insulated glass units, counterbalance its decreased thermal performance by reducing embodied energy during production? This research focusses on the material choice, quantity and distribution in the core of a sandwich panel in order to maximize thermal performance for a moderate maritime climate. In order to do so, materials from the CES library are evaluated. Detailed analytical calculations are used to determine the thermal performance regarding different patterns. FEA simulation software is used to determine the thermal performance regarding the cross-section of the actual thermal bridge between the two faces. From this research, the best solution is picked and evaluated on energy consumption, order to identify the effects on a building scale. General trends are identified and transformed into a design for a thin glass sandwich. Next to that, design guidelines are extracted for designers in order to design a thin glass sandwich without the need of calculating.

The recent developments in the building industry to build more sustainable should result in the use of light constructions with a low environmental impact. Timber is a suitable material for this purpose. To reduce the environmental impact of a building, an improvement in an often used structural element can have a significant impact on the sustainability. Floors are a large part of the material consumption of building. A challenge with lightweight timber floors is the vibrational performance of the floor due to walking humans. Conventional concrete floors are less sensitive to vibrations due to their large weight. The vibrations of the floor have influence on the comfort of the humans residing on the floor. Furthermore, concrete is generally seen as a less environmentally friendly material than timber. This raised the main research question of this thesis: How do vibrational performance levels influence the sustainability of several timber floor systems, considering multiple design configurations, compared to conventional concrete floor systems? The floors used in this research are a CLT floor, LVL box floor, TCC floor, concrete cast in situ floor and concrete hollow core floor. For the research on the vibrational performance and sustainability of floors some methods for assessment are used. For the vibrational performance the assessment method from the renewed Eurocode 5: Timber structures is used. This assesses the resonant and transient vibration response of the floor and checks them with predetermined vibrational comfort criteria. For the assessment of the sustainability the environmental cost indication is used. This method assesses several environmental impact categories and weighs their impact onto the environment, separately the global warming potential is also assessed by the CO2eq emissions of a material. The result gathered from the research show that timber floors are more sensitive to vibrational performance than concrete floors. Floors with a high vibrational performance need a significantly higher floor height than low performance floors. The influence of damping and floor configurations is important for the vibrational performance. The environmental impact of timber floors have an advantage when biogenic carbon is taken into account. Concrete floors can reach longer floor spans and for high performance floors have a lower increase of environmental impact than timber floors. For the environmental impact of a floor, reuse or recycling is important for the end-of-life scenario. To draw a conclusion to the main research question; Vibrational performance of floors do effect the environmental impact of the floors. High performance floors have a significantly higher environmental impact than low performance floors. The environmental impact of concrete floors increases less for higher floor performances than timber floors. Timber floors are more sustainable within their technical feasibility. The floor configurations can mitigate vibrations and can thus reduce the environmental impact of the floors.

The main topic of this thesis is the design of arch with components made up of glass and reinforced concrete. Parametric process as well as experiment is carried out in this research. In this thesis, bond strength between glass and fly ash concrete are studied.

With the rapid development of research and production techniques, the construction industry shifts increasingly towards more demanding and ambitious projects. As a consequence, new types of use for traditional building materials emerge to create more prestigious buildings. As a relatively new product, ultra-thin glass constitutes a promising prospect in this regard due to its low weight and its ability to be bent up to small radii. A possible application is a kinetic thin glass façade, where the glass is bent to ventilate the interior. However, the realisation of this concept poses a number of challenges. These include the difficulty of achieving water- and airtightness at its bent edges, as well as the lack of stiffness of the glass and its compliance with safety regulations, requiring its lamination. The aim of this study is to propose a possible design with the intention to tackle the named challenges. To this end, the research question is as follows: How can a kinetic façade element featuring a bendable thin glass panel be designed to be water- and airtight in closed condition? This question involves both structural and design aspects that need to be approached. The research question is answered through a structural analysis part and a part dedicated to the investigation of possible solutions for achieving water- and airtightness. The structural analysis is performed via numerical analysis to test several glass laminate configurations under bending and wind load. The selected configuration consists of two thin glass sheets with a thickness of 0.55 mm laminated by a 0.38 mm – thick soft acoustic interlayer. The exploration of solutions for water- and airtightness is done via proposal and critical assessment of three possible alternatives, one of which is selected for further elaboration to create a final product. The selected proposal involves the use of an electro-permanent magnetic frame combined with a gasket attracting a metal strip attached to the glazing and thus creating a water- and airtight barrier. At the end, a mock-up of smaller scale is built to showcase the mode of operation of the final product. Consequently, this paper presents a possible solution for the posed question to offer an insight into the field and to form a basis for further research for the development of a similar product. Many choices made during this research are subjective and are open for improvement or suggestions for a different approach. In addition, further research could be undertaken to investigate the possibility to create an insulating kinetic thin glass unit, which would be a step further towards the development of a product fulfilling the main requirements of a single-skin façade.

Owing to the rapid development of construction materials in building industry, a tendency towards smart and light design solutions using modern architectural principles is growing noticeably. The ultra-thin glass is a relatively new material which could be replaced with the thicker glasses in traditional windows to create a new concept for the building. Its promising prospects due to its low weight and its ability to be bent could develop a novel adaptive glass panel concept as a breathing skin in the building. Adaption can be implemented using smart materials capable of inherently sensing and responding to environmental changes with a type of actuation action. In this research study, the advancements of smart material technologies have been elaborated, together with the feasibility of these materials in adaptive architecture aspect. In the end, a novel adaptive glass panel concept has been offered by means of shape-memory alloy (SMA) cables in order to create a breathing skin for façade. The panel has been placed as an inner and outer skin in the selected case study. Its validation has been assessed through Finite-element numerical studies and experimental tests. The structural efficiency of the panel is evaluated by analyzing several glass laminate configurations under bending for inside and outside the situation and taking into account the effects of ordinary wind pressures for the outside condition. Based on the current investigation, it is expected that valuable design proposals can be derived for this novel design concept.

Currently, most of the modular building can be fabricated off-site, except for the stability system. Therefore, the question arises: Could modules be designed such that there is no need for an additional stability system? As modules are typically built in a rectangular shape, incorporating stability elements such as bracings along the longer side of the module is not the problem. The main challenge lies in the limited length available for stability elements on the shorter side of the module, combined with the fact that this shorter side is commonly used for windows and openings for door frames. This introduces a conflicting interest between structural capacity and daylight within the module. This conflicting interest becomes more and more prominent as the building height goes up. A possible solution to this problem can be found in the use of a load-bearing window frame with glass infill as a stability element, often referred to in literature as a timber-glass shear wall (TGSW). Therefore, this thesis will answer the main research question: 'To what extent can the structural performance of a timber-glass shear wall as a stability element in a timber module be used to accommodate for the stability of a mid-rise modular timber building?' The approach to answering the main research question consists of several steps. First, a literature study was conducted on modular buildings and TGSW's. The outcome of the study has provided insight into how modular buildings are constructed in general and how relevant aspects such as progressive collapse, fire safety design, and foundation design influence structural design. The study also resulted in an analytical prediction model for the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the TGSW. Through this prediction model, it became clear how the properties of individual components relate to the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the total TGSW-system. The second step was to propose a design for a modular timber building composed of timber modules. To save on computational time, the stability elements of the building are modelled using steel diagonals as an equivalent system for the TGSW. The cross-sectional area of the steel diagonals is directly related to the properties of the TGSW. Therefore, the steel diagonals have identical stability properties as the TGSW. In this study, varying the type of adhesive and the spacing of the screws was found to have the most significant impact on the overall structural properties of the TGSW. The horizontal connections are made of steel plates fastened with screws. The vertical connections are realised by shear plate connectors. The entire building was modelled in a 3D FEM programme to assess the structural behaviour of the building and its compliance with building regulations. Several building configurations ranging from 1:1 to 1:3 height-to-width ratio were investigated. For each building configuration, the cross-sectional area of the steel diagonals was adjusted within a specified range. This range corresponds to variations in adhesive type or screw spacing. As a result, design graphs were produced, which present the requirements for the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the stability system. These can be compared to the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the TGSW. This comparison can be used as a validation method to determine the viability of the TGSW stability element in a modular building. The results of this study indicate that a modular building can be stabilised by a TGSW up to six stories within the height-to-width ratio of 1:1 to 1:3. The minimum building configurations per story height are: 3 modules high by 5 modules wide, 4 by 8 modules, 5 by 12 modules, and 6 by 18 modules. These slenderness ratios were governed by the strength of the TGSW. The limiting factor in the load-bearing capacity is the shear strength of the adhesive. These slenderness ratios could only be reached with elastic adhesives such as silicones. The next step is to create a more extensive FEM model that could predict the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the TGSW in a more accurate way compared to an analytical model. Furthermore, exploring the performance of the TGSW under different horizontal loads, such as earthquakes, would give valuable insight.

The Netherlands is grappling with a substantial housing crisis, marked by an estimated shortage of 380,000 houses. To address this issue, an annual creation of 100,000 new housing units is deemed necessary. However, the current construction rate stands at only 70,000 houses per year, indicating a considerable gap in resolving the housing crisis. Recognizing the potential of urban densification, especially through vertical extension using Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT), presents a sustainable solution. Nevertheless, challenges arise, such as the unique approach to vertical extension and the structural constraints posed by CLT's lower strength compared to materials like concrete. This research aims to identify the vertical extension potential of CLT in existing buildings by developing a parametric tool that considers various structural constraints. The ultimate goal is to contribute to informed decision-making practices for sustainable and effective structural design in vertical extensions. The methodology comprises four phases: analysis, synthesis, simulation, and evaluation. The analysis phase examines existing vertical extensions, structural context, and spare capacity concepts, forming the basis for synthesis. A parametric tool is then created using Grasshopper and Karamba, employed in the simulation phase to conduct a parameter study based on the analysis phase findings. This study assesses the effects of the original structure's base geometry on spare capacity and evaluates the design of the extension itself. The results of the parameter study reveal that the presence and placement of a stability core have the most significant impact on spare capacity in the existing building. The original construction grid and building height also influence spare capacity, though to a lesser extent. Additionally, wall layouts in the extension, such as core alignment, functional design, and façade-aligned layouts, significantly affect spare capacity utilization in both the original structure and the extension. Variations in extension grid show differences in spare capacity utilization, with effects smaller in magnitude compared to wall layout variations and displaying less dependence on the original structure's geometry. In the vertical extension itself, failure tends to concentrate on connections between CLT panels and floors, particularly with wall layouts emphasizing functional design. In conclusion, the research, coupled with the development of a parametric tool, successfully achieves its main goal. The tool's accuracy is validated through extensive assessments of horizontal load transfer from the extension to the original structure. The parameter study highlights the significant effects of various parameters on extension design and the original structure, emphasizing the tool's utility in exploratory design stages for vertical extensions.

Glass is a commonly used material for façades and roofs. Recently even structural glass elements have been developed and the application of glass in structural elements is becoming more common. The ongoing development of new glass types and different production and processing methods resulted in the manufacturing of thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass by AGC. Thin glass is mainly applied in the electronics industry, but the increased strength, optical properties, toughness, bending resistance and weather resistance make it a promising material for application in buildings. The Netherlands is the globe’s number two food exporter and more than half of the nation’s land area is used for agriculture and horticulture. Research on the optimisation of greenhouse designs is a hot topic in the Netherlands to maintain this leading position. The greenhouse industry provides an appropriate application for flat thin glass panels, because of the possibility to increase both light transmittance and structural performance. The goal of the research presented in this report is to determine the feasibility of the application of thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass in greenhouse coverings. The research was divided into four topics that are relevant for greenhouse designs: building physics, structural properties, structural behaviour and economics. The building physics research was conducted in collaboration with the Greenhouse Technology team of the Wageningen University & Research. The light transmittance results showed an increased hemispherical light transmittance for thin glass when compared to regular float glass. The investigation of the structural properties of thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass was based on available literature and the material properties provided by the producer. For this research a characteristic bending tensile strength of 260 MPa has been assumed. However, further research is recommended for the determination of the accurate bending tensile strength and design impact strength of thin glass. The structural behaviour of a thin glass panel in a greenhouse covering was investigated by executing both numerical and experimental analyses. The numerical analysis of the reference system showed that it is necessary to stiffen the thin glass panel for flat application in a Venlo greenhouse system. Multiple variants were designed and studied by numerical and experimental analyses. The IGU panel turned out to be the most promising variant for future application of thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass in greenhouse coverings. As a main outcome it was concluded that thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass has a better light transmittance, higher bending strength and increased impact strength than regular float glass. This leads to a higher crop yield and lower costs for transportation, construction, maintenance and insurance which makes thin glass an attractive alternative. At this moment, however, the material costs are very high and the decreased thickness and increased flexibility resulted in a lower stiffness. It is therefore not likely that a single layer of uncoated thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass will result in a feasible greenhouse covering design. Nevertheless, the use of thin chemically strengthened aluminosilicate glass can result in an optimised greenhouse covering design when applied as an insulating (IGU) panel.

The main objective of this thesis project is to design a curved sandwich façade panel consisting of thin glass and GFRP Pultruded profiles , especially designed for applications in the built environment.

For this thesis an additively manufactured(AM) glass connection was researched. The aim was to see if it was possible to use plastic based AM for end use parts in the façade. This was done in three parts, which are presented in this thesis. The first part consists of research in all currently available technology that could be used to create such a connection. The following section is about the design process of the AM connection and its engineering. The final part of the research further validates the design by means of structural tests and a rough price comparison to already existing glass connections. The first part of this research focused on glass connections, additive manufacturing and topology optimization. This was primarily literature research that gave insight into which existing bases could be used to build on further in this project. The research showed that the spider profile has the most potential for further development and become a new sort of connection. The research also provided insight in the different AM technology’s that could make the new connection. That research was necessary to selected the final production method an used materials. In the final part of the literature study insight in topology optimization was obtained to design the connection with the help of topology optimization. The findings from the first part of the research provided the basis for the design and engineering processes of this new AM glass connection. The connection was designed with the help of topology optimization. The idea behind the optimization was to reduce the stresses in the glass and to attach the connection to the glass without drilling. The result of the optimization was a connection that has the shape of a line and that would be bonded to the glass with Transparant Silicone Structural Adhesive better known as TSSA. This connection consists of a number of different elements. The first is a separate AM piece that would be laminated to the glass and could be inserted into the remainder of the joint that connects four corners of four different glass plates. The second element is adapted to allow for the free movement of the glass panels by locally removing material so it would be weaker in one direction. Alternatively, it is given a power joint, which is a rubber joint that allows for movement in all directions. This connection was calculated multiple times to see how the connection would perform. In the final part of this thesis the joint itself was researched to further validate the connection. This was done by making a prototype of the connection to see how everything could work and if it was actually suitable for production. For this validation, process a number of tests were done on smaller specimens to show how strong the material is and to give validation to the calculations. Finally, a small study was done in to the market potential of custom glass connections like this one by making price comparisnos to currently existing spider profiles.

The research focuses on the combined use of thin glass and a 3D printed spacer pattern. The goal is to design a possible solution to use thin glass in architecture. In the first part of the thesis background research on thin glass, additive manufacturing, adhesive bonding and structural geometry is conducted. This has lead to results to formulate the criteria for the design. Important is that the pattern used in is printed continuously without support material and has enough surface area to deal with the shear stress when bended. To start the design process, three topologies are presented on which later designs are based. Those topologies are a straight extruded surface pattern, a lattice member structure and continuous pattern with cut-offs. Based on those topologies five designs are made from which the straight extruded Voronoi pattern is the one to continue with in the design because it scores the best on the criteria mentioned above. The Voronoi pattern is used in a several strategies which developed into the strategy which used gradient mapping based on a structural analysis to create a Voronoi pattern to represent the structural shape. Thereby also the Voronoi pattern based on LLoyd’s algorithm is tested since it presents the possibility to create a more evenly spread Voronoi pattern. To validate the results from the design strategy, FEA is used for five four side supported panels, five two side supported panels, two panels based on Lloyd’s algorithm and three lab test specimen. Those panels are analysed on deflection, principal stresses and shear stress. To make them comparable they translated to a value so they all represent the same amount of used material. The results of the analysis show a increase in resistance against deflection of 4,8% in the two side supported panels and 2,7% in the four side supported panels. For three of the panels is a lab specimen prepared. Those panel have a size of 300 x 150 mm and will be used in three point bending test in the lab. To conclude the research a final mock up with size of 1210 x 660 mm is built and will be placed in the window of the existing Product Development test lab at the TU Delft. Also is the panel used in a case study for the PD test lab. A facade redesign is made to demonstrate how the panel based on Lloyd’s algorithm can be used as a facade element.

Very little research has been done on the potential use of glass bottles in a structural system. Knowledge gathered from past projects showed that individuals or communities usually tend to create structures with glass bottles with a cementitious material, which is usually concrete or mortar. Under vertical compressive loading, the corresponding failure mechanisms should predominately be fractures in either the heel or the shoulder. Using two different finite element models and Weibull Analysis, a characteristic tensile strength of abraded container glass of 20 MPa was found. When structures are created out of glass waste, designs should be made with the abraded state in mind. Connections concepts are created to connect glass bottles together, i.e. 'Masonry', 'Stacked' and 'Bundled'. The 'Stacked' concept was considered the most suitable for this thesis. Eight different configurations of the Stacked concept were created, of which four were tested in a hydraulic displacement controlled compression machine in Stevinlab. These four configurations were called 'Whole-Up', 'Whole-FF', 'Whole-BB' and 'Cut-Double-BB'. The results showed that the Whole-Up had the highest vertical failure loads, followed by the Whole-FF and Whole-BB configurations, and the Cut-Double-BB have much lower failure loads, which is most likely due to the imperfections at the cut surface. Following these results, two different design options were created. The final prototype contains a demountable glass bottle column with intermediate plates and plastic elements. A proposed design formula for the vertical compressive design load was created based upon collected data and safety factors. The limitations of the bottle column are mainly the tolerance issues due to the different bottle heights and connections, the costs of the connections and the capacity in comparison with more conventional materials. The bottle column could however be an interesting options for smaller or temporary projects.

Research and development in additive manufacturing with concrete has become more widespread over the last decade. The processes developed range from concrete extrusion, to digital fabrication of formworks and the unification of formwork and reinforcement. Although they enable the production of increasingly material-efficient structures, the individual processes still face various challenges such as implementation of reinforcement, geometrical limitations, scaling and formation of cold joints, in particular because of the layer-based process. This research proposes an alternative method of producing concrete formworks dubbed ‘Eggshell’. Combined with a novel casting technique, its aim is to overcome these challenges and make material-efficient concrete production possible. As concrete is the most used construction material in the world its influence on the construction industry is unprecedented. Of the construction costs of concrete, formwork typically makes up 30-80% of the costs. This means formwork considerations are often a key driver in determining the design of concrete structures. Materials used to construct the formwork also have a big impact on the total ecological costs of the concrete building components. As the lifespan of all formwork is finite, this adds to the already considerable amount of waste generated by the building industry. Furthermore, traditional formwork made from steel or wood is ineffective in producing the non-standard, (double) curved geometry that characterizes many contemporary architectural designs. Using innovative means of formwork fabrication, these non-standard building components can potentially be produced in a more cost-, time- and material-efficient way. Moreover, Eggshell opens up possibilities for fabricating structurally optimized geometry, enabling a more efficient use of resources. The research builds upon previous work done as a part of an interdisciplinary master thesis in a collaboration between Gramazio Kohler Research, the Institute of Robotics and Intelligent Systems and the Physical Chemistry of Building Materials group (ETH Zurich). In the thesis a process was developed in which a thin-shell formwork is 3D printed while a fast-hydrating concrete is simultaneously fed in. By 3D printing the formwork, complex geometries can be fabricated effectively. The printed formwork can potentially also be recycled and reused, making the process fully circular. Furthermore, reinforcement can be integrated into the structures, allowing for the creation of structural building components.

Nowadays it is a top priority in the building sector to reduce the energy use and carbon emissions. One of the most important strategies to reduce the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in buildings is by increasing the thermal performance of its envelope. To achieve this, a low thermal transmission should be established. Glazed surfaces typically account for about 30 to 50 percent of transmission losses through building envelopes. Improving these products therefore could save an significant amount of energy. Unfortunately, at the moment double and triple glazing is often applied. With each layer of glass, a substantial amount of weight is added. Because of this, the support construction is facing its mechanical limits.Therefore, this thesis focusses on designing an insulating façade system with thin glass. Thin glass is very lightweight, but also very flexible which is unfavorable in a façade. Inspiration was found by analyzing the stiffening methods that are currently used in the glass industy. But the most suitable stiffening method was found in the industry where lightness matters most, aerospace engineering. A honeycomb sandwich turned out to be most lightweight stiffening method, while also transmitting light and increasing the thermal insulation value. The result of this graduation project is a thin glass – aramid honeycomb – thin glass sandwich panel. In comparison to the façade of the choosen case study, the weight of the façade and the support construction is reduced substantially while providing integrated sun shading, sufficient insulation (U-value of 1.4 W/m2K) and light transmission.

The impacts that the construction industry has on the environment has become an element of concern worldwide. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) claims that building activity has the potential to dramatically alter land’s surface (Sikra, 2017). This is mostly because many construction projects include destroying vegetation and digging, which extensively pollutes the area’s surroundings. Additionally, due to their high embodied energy contents, construction materials like concrete, aluminum, and steel are directly to blame for significant amounts of CO2 emissions. Uncomfortably, building activities account for one-sixth of world freshwater consumption, one-quarter of global wood consumption, and one-quarter of global waste. They also consume half of all natural resources that are taken from the environment. 40% of drinking water contamination, 50% of landfill waste, 23% of air pollution, and 50% of climate change are all caused by the building industry (Sikra, 2017). And these are just some of the aspects in which the construction industry is involved, but it is enough to realise that solutions are needed to heal planet Earth and in fact contribute positively to it. One approach to this problem is to leave room for nature to manifest and express itself and then to be inspired by it. Natural creatures are an example of living and thriving on Earth by striking a balance between themselves and the surroundings. They are constantly integrating and optimizing themselves in order to produce life-friendly settings (Oguntona and Aigbavboa, 2017). The lessons that can be learned from nature are summarised in Bio-mimicry Life’s Principles. One of them suggests how natural organisms evolved with the logic of optimising rather than maximising by developing a multi-function design (De Pauw et al., 2010a). This report deals with two key principles: sustainability and multi-functionality. The aim is to develop a methodology that allows, in an objective manner, the identification of the best tailored building strategy in terms of maximisation of the level of sustainability achievable with one single solution. The project follows 6 steps: research, development, investigation and improvement, validation and testing. The methodology is designed within Microsoft Excel and integrates the sustainability criteria of LEED green building rating system, a program for assessing the green level of buildings that is already widely used internationally. The LEED program appears in all project phases but particularly in the research, development and validation phase. The latter is conducted by the method of comparing data obtained from the tool in Excel with verified data from LEED-certified projects. After the development phase, it emerges that the tool while based on a well-structured, widely used and tested program such as LEED, is prone to subjectivity. Much of the time is therefore devoted to making sure that the tool is project-dependent and not user-dependent. As for the investigation and improvement phases, these are carried out by means of a survey built in Google Forms. Finally, the process of testing the tool is performed by applying it to a real case which is offered by the engineering and architecture company OneWorks. It is the General Aviation terminal at Orio al Serio airport (Bergamo, Italy). To conclude, time is a crucial aspect when it comes to reducing the impact on the environment. So, this thesis aspires to provide a new methodology that can help designers, engineers and architects to shorten the time it takes to choose the best tailored strategy in terms of sustainability and multi-functionality.

The present Master thesis explores the implementation of a glare-based control strategy for Venetian blinds in buildings with totally transparent facades. The case study concerns the Co-Creation Center, a building that hosts three different types of events: presentations, meetings and workshops. The diverse occupancy patterns, coupled with the four fully glazed facades, make the effective blinds control a challenging task to achieve using a traditional rule-based approach. Therefore, in this project, an optimized control system is proposed, aiming at the minimization of visual discomfort due to glare, as well as the minimization of energy demands for electric lighting by increasing daylight entry. The control strategy is developed within Grasshopper, a promising tool for parametric and optimization problems. Grasshopper allows for the creation of a parametric model that can be adjusted to other similar buildings with fully glazed facades by modifying the input parameters. Radial Basis Function Optimization (RBFOpt), a model-based optimization method performed by Grasshopper’s component Opossum, is utilized for the computation of the optimal blinds’ states. within the developed control strategy, Ecyl is used as a glare index, giving the opportunity to evaluate its performance. Results show that the developed algorithm can improve the existing visual conditions in the Co-Creation Center by an average of 80% for all activity types, although it led to an average increase of 7% in the time steps where electric lighting is needed, in comparison to the current control. Nevertheless, the time-consuming ray-tracing process performed by Grasshopper for each time step and the non-automated use of the RBFOpt component Opossum, slowed down the optimizations and made their use rather unsuitable for real-life implementation of the control strategy. Despite the impractical use of Opossum, RBFOpt was proved a promising optimization method. Finally, Ecyl displayed an overall agreement of 92.5% with DGP, proving that in spaces with multiple windows and uncertain occupants’ view direction, a view-independent index can predict glare risks adequately well, after being carefully correlated with another reliable view-dependent metric.

The research of this thesis focuses on the stiffness and the durability of a composite panel that consists of thin glass as outer layers and a 3D printed core element from recycled PET. Thin Alumino-silicate glass, mostly used in computers, tablets and smartphones, is known for its lightweight, flexibility, durability, high bending strength and relatively low weight. However, the lack of stiffness allows for some safety-issues. In combination with another material, composite panel can be generated. The core element of this composite panel will consist of 3D printed recycled PET. The use of recycled PET has been taken into account, due to the increasing of plastic waste for the next 30 years. A combination of both materials allows for a much stiffer composite panel and reduction in weight of 71,9 % compared to a normal double glazed window panel. The unaffected composite panels showed that the panels returned to its original shape after removing the load. However, the experiments showed that 3D printing reduces the mechanical properties of recycled PET and PET. An overview is presented in this paper of the durability of the composite panel. The durability aspects for this research are UV radiation, elevated temperature and fire. The UV radiation showed that the glue from DELO ensures for a better adhesion , which allows reaching higher forces. Also, the showed to let recycled PET change into a yellowish color and becomes more brittle. At an elevated temperature of 80 ⁰C, recycled PET looses its stiffness and strength and can not take up forces when exposed. Recycled PET has melting temperature starting from 200 ⁰C and during a fire temperatures could reach up to 1000 ⁰C. This allows the core element to melt fully during a fire. The following chapters of this thesis will give an overview of the literature study and the experiments that were performed and how the composite panel can be integrated into a facade. Keywords: Thin glass, Recycled PET, PET, composite, 3D printing, UV radiation, elevated temperature, fire, Honeycomb pattern, Truss pattern.

The objective of this research is to investigate the possibilities of creating an algorithmic design for structural glass covers, to create an innovative methodology with a broad spectrum of potential applications. The methodology should stimulate the easy use of glass as a structural material. It should also contribute to the bridging of the gap between architects and structural engineers and take advantage of the potential of parametric design for architectural and structural purposes.

The circular potential of existing aluminium curtain wall facades is investigated in this study. The focus is primarily on reuse, refurbishment and re-manufacturing, aiming to raise the value of materials that have not yet reached the end of their service life. The increasing concern about resource depletion, damage to the ecosphere and the need for sustainable development increases the demand for sustainable strategies in many industries. The building industry is one of the most polluting industries at current times and with governments incorporating laws regarding these topics, the need for methods to reduce the impact in this industry is needed. Facades have a great impact on the whole life carbon impact of a building and show potential for reuse. Scheldebouw, a facade producer in the Netherlands, connected to Permasteelisa, is looking for possible ways to make the construction industry more sustainable. This study aims to reduce the take-make-dispose culture, by creating circular strategies for existing curtain wall facades. It was observed that those facades lose their function before their end-of-life stage is reached. The remaining value and potential that was wasted in this case could be avoided. The objective of this thesis is to develop strategies to reuse existing aluminium curtain wall facade elements, to diminish waste and reduce resource depletion. To quantify the impact of these strategies the life cycle analysis is used to calculate the amount of emitted carbon. A mixed-method research was conducted, which involved integrating interviews with experts in the facade and material industry along with a review of literature, resulting in the development of a qualitative understanding. Integrating this with reference studies, the application of reuse was further examined. Lastly, strategies have been formed, which have been applied to a relevant case. Facades do have the potential for reuse, as demonstrated in this study. Facades play a crucial role in enclosing indoor spaces, which leads to various specific characteristics that make both facade structures in themselves and in their reuse rather complex. Facade systems are often uniquely developed, making it difficult to locate a match for reuse. Eight general strategies have been defined to create incentives for reuse. A method for calculating the avoided carbon was created to quantify the potential of the strategies and provide an incentive for clients to include these circular strategies. Overall, the research outcomes offer a framework that has the potential to reduce resource depletion and increase value retention in the facade industry. Crucial elements were determined and components that show potential for reuse were defined. Risks and uncertainties have been identified, as well as the need for incentives for producers, clients, and policymakers. As mentioned above, finding a receiving project that matches the donor material and designing with these materials still appears to be difficult. Regarding carbon emissions, beneficial strategies were defined. Refurbishment can achieve an 86% carbon reduction with 99% of the materials being reused. Re-manufacturing offers a 49% overall carbon reduction with a 59% material saving. Challenges lie in glazing reuse, particularly sealant and spacer components. Implementing re-manufacturing with glass replacement saves 27% embodied carbon and reduces waste by 21% at the donor building and 28% in the product and construction stages.