The Saccharomycotina subphylum (budding yeasts) spans 400 million years of evolution and includes species that thrive in diverse environments. To study niche-adaptation, we identify changes in gene expression in three divergent yeasts grown in the presence of various stressors. Duplicated and non-conserved genes are significantly more likely to respond to stress than genes that are conserved as single-copy orthologs. Next, we develop a sorting method that considers evolutionary origin and duplication timing to assign an evolutionary age to each gene. Subsequent analysis reveals that genes that emerged in recent evolutionary time are enriched amongst stress-responsive genes for each species. This gene expression pattern suggests that budding yeasts share a stress adaptation mechanism, whereby selective pressure leads to functionalization of young genes to improve growth in adverse conditions. Further characterization of young genes from species that thrive in harsh environments can inform the design of more robust strains for biotechnology.

This chapter on architectural glass focuses on the use of glass in buildings and structures. It covers a wide variety of glass applications ranging from its most frequent use in facade glazing systems to advanced applications of glass as a load-bearing material. The latter is a relatively young field of application and evolved from the early 1990s from simple beam applications to today's all-glass structures. An overview of flat glass products that are frequently applied in architecture is provided in Sect. 52.1. This includes a discussion of the related float glass production process, processing technologies, surface treatments, and glass functionalities such as insulation and fire resistant and switchable glazing. In addition to these flat glass products, which are most commonly applied in architecture, Sect. 52.2 discusses cast glass products. Cast glass products such as glass channels and glass blocks provide a different typology and offer a different architectural expression from flat glass products and are as such frequently used in exterior facades and interior separation walls. The application of glass in common facade systems and as a load-bearing material in structures is discussed in Sect. 52.3. This includes a reflection on the related design methodologies and safety concepts that deal with the brittle and, thus, inherently unsafe failure behavior of glass. Section 52.4 describes different typologies for connecting glass components such as glass facade panels or structural glass beams. This includes a discussion of classical mechanical connections and more recent adhesive bonding technologies that provide new opportunities for glass engineering. Section 52.5 discusses numerical modeling procedures that can be used in the design and engineering of glass in the architectural domain. Finally, an outlook for future developments in architectural glass is provided in Sect. 52.6.