This paper addresses the effect of the post-process heat treatments on the microstructure and fatigue crack growth behaviour of the functionally graded (FG) laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) Inconel 718 (IN718) superalloy. Sets of samples were additively manufactured (AM) altering the process parameters, namely the laser power, the laser scanning speed, layer thickness, hatch distance, and beam distribution function, resulting in distinctly different microstructures. Two categories of samples underwent heat treatment (HT) and hot isostatic pressing followed by HT (HIP+HT), while one category was kept in the as-processed (AP) condition to reveal the effects of the post-treatments. Additionally, to study the effect of microstructural anisotropy, samples were printed in horizontal (H) and vertical (V) building directions. To better understand the behaviour of the FG materials, non-graded (NG) L-PBF samples and wrought material were investigated as references. Significant variations in terms of porosity, grain size and elongation, crystallographic texture, and content of the strengthening precipitates or detrimental phases were found in different AM groups. The fatigue behaviour of the NG and FG materials was also studied by conducting three-point bending tests. Findings in terms of the role of different microstructures on the fatigue-crack initiation and fatigue crack growth rate are presented and discussed for all samples. The study demonstrated that heat treatments can enhance the damage tolerance of L-PBF IN718 to the level of wrought material. Interestingly, the effect of the roughness induced crack closure was found to be a function of build orientation, especially in the low stress ratio regime.@en

Offshore activity in low-temperature areas requires the use of analysis methods that are capable of reliably predicting cleavage (brittle) fracture of ferritic steels in order to guarantee the structural integrity during service. Cleavage fracture is controlled by physical events at different size scales and is influenced by the multiple microstructural parameters of the material. The prediction of fracture toughness of steels based on the microstructure has received great attention, and relevant techniques have been continuously developed. This paper is aimed at reviewing the recent development of cleavage fracture modelling in steels and identifying the existing challenges to inspire further research. The paper contains three parts aimed at explaining how methods are developed and utilized to predict fracture toughness of steel from its microstructures. (1) The complex multiparametric nature of the microstructures of ferritic steels and its influence on cleavage fracture is introduced. (2) A review is given on the main perspectives and models in micromechanisms of cleavage fracture in steels. (3) Discussion is contributed to the link between micromechanisms and the local approach in cleavage fracture modelling. As a result, the paper gives a state of the art on microstructural mechanics and local approach methods of cleavage fracture modelling in structural steels.@en

Thick section S690 QT steel is modelled with a modified multibarrier model that is based on the weakest-link mechanism. Segregation bands are modelled as discrete layers which have different grain size, yield properties, and local fracture parameters from outside of the bands. The results show that embrittlement from segregation bands can only be adequately reflected if the inhomogeneities of the fracture parameters are accounted for. The present methodology quantitively captures the cooperation of complex microstructural features in cleavage and can facilitate the trade-off between the effects of various microstructural parameters in toughness control.@en

In this paper, the effect of microstructural anisotropy on the fatigue crack growth behaviour of the functionally graded Inconel 718 fabricated through laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is investigated. Different manufacturing parameters, including low and high laser powers, were used to produce a variety of non-graded (NG) and functionally graded (G) specimens in two build directions, vertical and horizontal. In addition, a group of heat treated wrought samples was tested as a reference. It was observed that the different manufacturing parameters result in various grain size, crystallographic textures, precipitates and Laves phases, porosity, and un-melted particles. Three-point bending fatigue tests were conducted to measure the threshold stress intensity factor (ΔKth) and fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR),da/dN. Only the lower laser power L-BPF Inconel material was found to have comparable to the wrought heat treated material fatigue crack growth behaviour. Furthermore, a new approach of automatically controlling ΔK as a function of the crack length was employed for graded specimens to investigate the crack growth rate as a function of local microstructure. The FCGR value of the vertical L-PBF samples, in which the crack direction was perpendicular to the build direction, remained constant. In contrast, the da/dN value of the horizontal samples with the crack direction parallel to the build direction increased constantly with the increase of the crack length. This behaviour is in good agreement with the hardness profile of the graded materials. Melt pool boundaries, graded interface boundaries, and grain orientations close to 〈001〉 were found to deflect the crack path. Additionally, it was found that L-PBF material is more affected (at a low stress ratio of R = 0.1) by the roughness-induced crack closure than the wrought counterparts. This study has successfully demonstrated the feasibility of using an additive manufacturing process to fabricate functionally graded materials featuring tailorable fatigue response of the local microstructures.@en

Macroscale cleavage fracture toughness of high strength steels is strongly related to the fracture of hard microstructural inclusions. Therefore, an accurate determination of the local stress on these inclusions based on the matrix stress is necessary for the statistical modelling of macroscale cleavage fracture. This paper presents analytical equations to quantitatively estimate the stress of the microstructural inclusions from the far-field stress of the matrix. The analytical equations account for the inclusion shape, the inclusion orientation, the far-field stress state and matrix material properties. Finite element modelling of a representative volume element containing a hard inclusion shows that the equations provide an accurate representation of the local stress state. The equations are implemented into a multi-barrier model and compared with CTOD experiments with two different levels of constraint.@en

Study of the cleavage behavior of heat treated S690 steel by a microstructure-based approach combined with finite element analysis is present in this paper. Cleavage simulations of steels subjected to heat treatments that cause grain refinement or simulate heat affected zones are performed, and are compared with experiments. It is found that the experimental improvement of toughness from grain refinement is 80% of what would be expected based on the model. The 20% difference is due to the lower number fraction of high-angle misorientation boundaries. It is also found that the resistance to micro-crack propagation is more effective in heat affected zones, which can be explained by the residual compressive stress in martensite-austenite constituents. This research assesses the balance between microstructural parameters for controlling cleavage toughness.@en

The need for more accurate cleavage modelling is particularly acute for a new generation of high-strength steels because they obtain their favourable properties through complex, multi-phase microstructures. One of the challenges in cleavage modelling is the strong sensitivity to material characteristics at the microlevel. This thesis proposes a novel framework that can quantitatively capture the interaction of complex microstructures in cleavage, allowing to calculate the probability of cleavage failure in high strength steels of complex multiphase microstructures. This method is validated with detailed experiments on different types of steels and on steels that have been subjected to heat treatments. The framework is developed from a multi-barrier theory with the particular intention to include the effect of plastic strain and deactivation of hard inclusions. In order to quantitively determine the inclusion stress from far-field stress on a matrix, analytical equations are first derived. The proposed framework is first validated with examples of specimens taken from a S690 QT steel plate fractured at -100°C. Centreline segregation bands (CLs) appear in the middle-section specimens, containing smaller grains and elongated inclusion clusters. Two modelling approaches are compared to discuss the effect of CLs in cleavage modelling. A sensitivity study is performed to explore the influence of volume fractions, yield strength, and spacing of CLs. Then, the modelling approach is applied to determine the cleavage parameters across different types of steels. Cleavage parameters are compared among three tempered bainitic (S690) steels, an as-quenched martensitic steel, and a ferritic steel. The variation of cleavage parameters is discussed considering the influence of the matrix types and the hard particle types. Finally, cleavage simulations of the high strength steel after rapid cyclic heating and microstructures representing heat affect zones are performed. The simulations are compared with experiments that feature parametric variations of grain size, second particle size, and second particle density. The effect of different types of microstructures generated by heat treatments is quantitatively established. @en

Multi-barrier cleavage models consider cleavage fracture which is characterized by a series of microscale events. One of the challenges for multi-barrier cleavage models is the strong variations of cleavage parameters across different types of steels. The source and magnitude of the variations have not been studied systematically. In the current paper, cleavage parameters corresponding to fracture initiation at a hard particle and crack propagation overcoming grain boundaries are determined for three bainitic steels, a martensitic steel, and a ferritic steel, using a recently proposed model. It is found that the particle fracture parameter depends on particle morphology and composition, while the grain boundary cleavage parameter depends on the hierarchical grain structure. The determined values of cleavage parameters present a high degree of consistency among the five different steels, which allows the further application on microstructure design to control macroscopic toughness.@en

One of the main challenges in applying thick-section high-strength steels (HSS) at arctic condition in offshore and maritime industry is to maintain a sufficient level of toughness to prevent brittle failure. An aspect that requires special attention is the through-thickness microstructural variation which may result in different local mechanical responses affecting the overall material’s fracture behaviour. This paper presents an experimental study combining microstructural investigation and sub-sized fracture toughness testing at −100 °C of different sections of 80 mm S690QL steel aimed to evaluate the effect of microstructure on cleavage fracture. In addition, different crack depth to width ratios (a/W) were used to investigate the constraint effect, while different notch orientations were applied to assess the effect of rolling orientation. Results show lower fracture toughness for the middle of the plate, which was attributed to the presence of large Nb-rich inclusions which may feature pre-existing cracks and/or defects in the inclusion/matrix interface and also often distributed as clusters. It was also observed that a/W ratio plays an important role in fracture toughness showing shallow-notched specimens with substantially higher fracture toughness than deep cracked specimens. Moreover, microstructural features such as inclusions aligned parallel to the pre-crack can ease the crack propagation and contribute to a reduction in fracture toughness.@en

The modelling of bond behavior can be an important aspect in the reliability assessment of corroded reinforced concrete structures. However, existing models for bond properties of corroded reinforcement - to our knowledge - are not expressed in probabilistic terms and hence not considered in reliability analyses. This paper aims to fill this gap by (i) quantifying the uncertainties associated with a selected model that translates a reinforcing bar area loss to the change in bond-slip properties; and (ii) propagating these uncertainties to structural reliability to assess their importance. The frequentist paradigm is applied for the statistical analysis of experimental data for the bond model of corroded reinforcement proposed in the literature. Reliability assessment of an illustrative example - a simply supported beam with lap splices - is completed with and without considering the uncertainties in this bond model. The reliability calculations concern ultimate limit state verifications, using non-linear finite element analysis. The results show that the neglect of uncertainties in the bond model for corroded reinforcement can lead to about 10 times underestimation of the failure probability, hence their consideration in reliability assessment is advised.@en

The modelling of bond behavior can be an important aspect in the reliability assessment of corroded reinforced concrete structures. However, existing models for bond properties of corroded reinforcement - to our knowledge - are not expressed in probabilistic terms and hence not considered in reliability analyses. This paper aims to fill this gap by (i) quantifying the uncertainties associated with a selected model that translates a reinforcing bar area loss to the change in bond-slip properties; and (ii) propagating these uncertainties to structural reliability to assess their importance. The frequentist paradigm is applied for the statistical analysis of experimental data for the bond model of corroded reinforcement proposed in the literature. Reliability assessment of an illustrative example - a simply supported beam with lap splices - is completed with and without considering the uncertainties in this bond model. The reliability calculations concern ultimate limit state verifications, using non-linear finite element analysis. The results show that the neglect of uncertainties in the bond model for corroded reinforcement can lead to about 10 times underestimation of the failure probability, hence their consideration in reliability assessment is advised.@en

For structural assessment and optimal design of thick-section high-strength steels in applications under harsh service conditions, it is essential to understand the cleavage fracture micromechanisms. In this study, we assess the effects of through-thickness microstructure of an 80-mm-thick quenched and tempered S690 high-strength steel, notch orientation, and crack tip constraint in cleavage nucleation and propagation via sub-sized crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing at −100 °C. The notch was placed parallel and perpendicular to the rolling direction, and the crack tip constraint was analysed by varying the a/W ratio: 0.5, 0.25, and 0.1. The notch orientation does not play a role, and the material is considered isotropic in-plane. Nb-rich inclusions were observed to act as the weak microstructural link in the steel, triggering fracture in specimens with the lowest CTOD values. While shallow-cracked specimens from the top section present larger critical CTOD values than deep-cracked ones due to stress relief ahead of the crack tip, the constraint does not have a significant influence in the middle due to the very detrimental microstructure in the presence of Nb-rich inclusions. Some specimens show areas of intergranular fracture due to the combined effect of C, Cr, Mn, Ni, and P segregation along with precipitation of Nb-rich inclusions clusters on the grain boundaries. Several crack deflections at high-angle grain boundaries were observed where the neighbouring sub-structure has different Bain axes.@en

The through-thickness heterogeneous microstructure of thick-section high strength steels is responsible for the significant scatter of properties along the thickness. In this study, in order to identify the critical microstructural features in the fracture behaviour and allow for design optimisation and prediction of structural failure, the through-thickness microstructure of thick-section steels was extensively characterised and quantified. For this purpose, samples were extracted from the top quarter and middle thickness positions, and a combination of techniques including chemical composition analysis, dilatometry, and microscopy was used. The hardness variation through the thickness was analysed via micro-Vickers measurements and the local hardness variation in the middle section was studied via nanoindentation. The middle section presented larger prior austenite grain (PAG) sizes and larger sizes and area fraction of inclusions than the top section. Additionally, cubic inclusions were observed distributed as clusters in the middle, sometimes decorating PAG boundaries. Defects associated with the cubic inclusions or the interface between the matrix and the circular and cubic inclusions were observed in the mid-thickness. Moreover, the middle section presented long interfaces with the most significant hardness gradients due to the presence of hard centreline segregation bands. Hence, the microstructural and nanoindentation analyses indicated the middle section as the most likely area to have the lowest fracture toughness and, therefore, the most unfavourable section for fracture performance of the investigated S690QL high strength steel. The detrimental effect of the middle section was confirmed via CTOD tests where the middle presents lower fracture toughness than the top section.@en