This paper addresses the effect of the post-process heat treatments on the microstructure and fatigue crack growth behaviour of the functionally graded (FG) laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) Inconel 718 (IN718) superalloy. Sets of samples were additively manufactured (AM) altering the process parameters, namely the laser power, the laser scanning speed, layer thickness, hatch distance, and beam distribution function, resulting in distinctly different microstructures. Two categories of samples underwent heat treatment (HT) and hot isostatic pressing followed by HT (HIP+HT), while one category was kept in the as-processed (AP) condition to reveal the effects of the post-treatments. Additionally, to study the effect of microstructural anisotropy, samples were printed in horizontal (H) and vertical (V) building directions. To better understand the behaviour of the FG materials, non-graded (NG) L-PBF samples and wrought material were investigated as references. Significant variations in terms of porosity, grain size and elongation, crystallographic texture, and content of the strengthening precipitates or detrimental phases were found in different AM groups. The fatigue behaviour of the NG and FG materials was also studied by conducting three-point bending tests. Findings in terms of the role of different microstructures on the fatigue-crack initiation and fatigue crack growth rate are presented and discussed for all samples. The study demonstrated that heat treatments can enhance the damage tolerance of L-PBF IN718 to the level of wrought material. Interestingly, the effect of the roughness induced crack closure was found to be a function of build orientation, especially in the low stress ratio regime.@en

Additive manufacturing technologies in general and laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) in particular have been on the rise in different applications, including biomedical implants. The effects of the various L-PBF process parameters on the microstructure and properties of Ti6Al4V lattice structures have been studied before. However, the relationship between the different modes of laser scanning and the resulting microstructure, internal imperfections, and surface morphology is still underexplored. In this study, the aforementioned parameters and their effect on the compressive mechanical properties and fatigue behaviour of lattice titanium have been studied for both continuous and pulsed laser scanning modes. Moreover, the influence of various combinations of post-processing treatments, such as hot isostatic pressing (HIP), sandblasting, and chemical etching, on the quasi-static mechanical properties and fatigue endurance of the resulting materials were investigated. It was found that continuous laser strategy results in fewer imperfections and higher fatigue resistance, while pulsed laser showed a more homogenous microstructure; likely leading to a more isotropic behaviour. Furthermore, the continuous mode showed larger prior β grains preferentially oriented in the building direction, while pulsed specimens exhibited finer equiaxed grains with no preferred orientations. The highest level of fatigue life was obtained by using an optimized combination of HIP, sandblasting, and chemical etching.@en

This work discusses the design and demonstration of an in-situ test setup for testing pipeline steels in a high pressure gaseous hydrogen (H2) environment. A miniature hollow pipe-like tensile specimen was designed that acts as the gas containment volume during the test. Specific areas of the specimen can be forced to fracture by selective notching, as performed on the weldment. The volume of H2 used was minimised so the test can be performed safely without the need of specialised equipment. The setup is shown to be capable of characterising Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) in steels through testing an X60 pipeline steel and its weldment. The percentage elongation (%El) of the base metal was found to be reduced by 40% when tested in 100 barg H2. Reduction of cross-sectional area (%RA) was found to decrease by 28% and 11% in the base metal and weld metal, respectively, when tested in 100 barg H2. Benchmark test were performed at 100 barg N2 pressure. SEM fractography further indicated a shift from normal ductile fracture mechanisms to a brittle transgranular (TG) quasi-cleavage (QC) type fracture that is characteristic of HE.@en

The reversible behaviour of metals at low applied stresses is more complex than the generally assumed linear behaviour. This is primarily because of the reversible nature of dislocation motion leading to a strain contribution known as anelasticity. This work aims to investigate (a) quantification of dislocation structures in industrial grade stainless steels, (b) unloading behaviour, and (c) the fundamentals of reversible and mechanical behaviour occurring below the yield stress. Mechanical testing of martensitic stainless steel (Stavax ESR) was performed in two different modes: incremental plastic deformation and cyclic loading-unloading below the yield stress with a focus on the measurement of small strains and corresponding stresses, occurring in the pre-yield regime. The non-linear reversible behaviour was quantitatively analysed, as opposed to the common approximation of an empirical determination of apparent Young's modulus. The recently proposed pre-yield model has been refined and, for the first time, successfully applied to a complex microstructure such as stainless steel. The quantification of dislocation structure parameters is shown to be an efficient alternative to the conventional experimental methods of quantifying dislocation structure. Further, a unique representation and quantification of the unloading and hysteresis behaviour provides more insight into the material behaviour. Lastly, the little studied microplasticity occurring below the yield stress upon cyclic loading-unloading was determined. Importantly, the physical basis of the model will allow quantification of plastic deformations in the pre-yield region, large enough to be significant in industrial processes.@en

In this paper, the effect of microstructural anisotropy on the fatigue crack growth behaviour of the functionally graded Inconel 718 fabricated through laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) is investigated. Different manufacturing parameters, including low and high laser powers, were used to produce a variety of non-graded (NG) and functionally graded (G) specimens in two build directions, vertical and horizontal. In addition, a group of heat treated wrought samples was tested as a reference. It was observed that the different manufacturing parameters result in various grain size, crystallographic textures, precipitates and Laves phases, porosity, and un-melted particles. Three-point bending fatigue tests were conducted to measure the threshold stress intensity factor (ΔKth) and fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR),da/dN. Only the lower laser power L-BPF Inconel material was found to have comparable to the wrought heat treated material fatigue crack growth behaviour. Furthermore, a new approach of automatically controlling ΔK as a function of the crack length was employed for graded specimens to investigate the crack growth rate as a function of local microstructure. The FCGR value of the vertical L-PBF samples, in which the crack direction was perpendicular to the build direction, remained constant. In contrast, the da/dN value of the horizontal samples with the crack direction parallel to the build direction increased constantly with the increase of the crack length. This behaviour is in good agreement with the hardness profile of the graded materials. Melt pool boundaries, graded interface boundaries, and grain orientations close to 〈001〉 were found to deflect the crack path. Additionally, it was found that L-PBF material is more affected (at a low stress ratio of R = 0.1) by the roughness-induced crack closure than the wrought counterparts. This study has successfully demonstrated the feasibility of using an additive manufacturing process to fabricate functionally graded materials featuring tailorable fatigue response of the local microstructures.@en

With fossil fuels being phased out and growing global interest in a hydrogen economy, there is demand for re-purposing existing pipelines for transportation of hydrogen gas. However, hydrogen embrittlement (HE) can limit pipeline steel’s performance. In this study, the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of an X60 base metal (polygonal ferrite/pearlite) and its girth weld (acicular ferrite/pearlite) was measured with a novel slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) test in which hollow pipe-like specimens were internally pressurised with nitrogen and hydrogen gas from 0 to 100 bars. Results showed that exposure to H2 gas at 100 bars reduced the ductility of the base metal by up to 40% and the weld metal by 14%. Reduction in cross-sectional area (%RA) reduced by up to 28% in the base metal and 11% in the weld metal. Fracture surface analysis showed micro-void coalescence as well as quasi-cleavage fracture characteristic of HE. Susceptibility to HE was also observed in the form of secondary longitudinal and internal transverse cracks.@en

This study examines the interface layer between a high-strength low-alloy steel and an overlaying austenitic stainless steel as deposited through wire arc additive manufacturing in a bi-metal block. By utilizing optical and electron microscopy techniques, and accompanied by phenomenological and thermodynamic modeling, the work elucidates on the nature of the distinct microstructural features at a new level of detail. Results showcase martensite in the form of a band along the fusion line of the first dissimilar layer, as well as in segregated islands. Within the same bead, yet away from the fusion line, an austenite matrix is identified alongside a large phase fraction of primary ferrite and sparse bainite. These findings enhance our understanding of the nature of the heterogeneous microstructure at the interface of a bi-metal build and establish empirical evidence for future modeling of microstructural development. Supplementary characterization reveals the impact of these microstructural heterogeneities on bulk mechanical performance. Hardness indents exhibit varied results along the interface, peaking at martensite islands with values up to 370HV0.2, surpassing the neighboring matrix by 50%. Under quasi-static tensile loading, bi-metallic specimens display strain partitioning along the fusion boundary, as confirmed by Digital Image Correlation. When compared to the adjoining stainless steel, the diluted interface layer exhibits superior strength (σy: 411 MPa) and comparable ductility (24%), leading to necking and failure away from this region. These results help predict the structural performance of bi-metal parts, and build a base for further research in more intricate loading scenarios, such as crack propagation processes.@en