An underground aqueduct is usually a canal built in the subsurface to transfer water from a starting point to a distant location. Systems of underground aqueducts have been applied by ancient civilizations to manage different aspects of water supply. This research reviews underground aqueducts from the prehistoric period to modern times to assess the potential of achieving sustainable development of water distribution in the sectors of agriculture and urban management, and provides valuable insights into various types of ancient underground systems and tunnels. The review illustrates how these old structures are a testament of ancient people’s ability to manage water resources using sustainable tools such as aqueducts, where the functionality works by using, besides gravity, only “natural” engineering tools like inverted siphons. The study sheds new light on human’s capability to collect and use water in the past. In addition, it critically analyzes numerous examples of ancient/historic/pre-industrial underground water supply systems that appear to have remained sustainable up until recent times. The sustainability of several underground structures is examined, correlated to their sound construction and regular maintenance. Moreover, several lessons can be learned from the analysis of ancient hydraulic works, particularly now, as many periodically hydrologic crises have occurred recently, overwhelmingly impacted by climate change and/or over-exploitation and degradation of available water resources.@en

The Alphasense optical particle counter (OPC) provides a low-cost and lightweight solution for measurements of the size and number concentration of airborne particulate matter (PM). The micro fan with which it is originally equipped cannot, however, achieve a high enough pressure differential for maintaining an adequate flow rate when connected to sampling/pretreatment aerosol lines, limiting its use for air quality monitoring. Here, we propose a simple modification on the sample flow system that enables the connection of the Alphasense OPC with sampling/pretreatment lines (e.g., dryers) commonly employed on ground observational sites, as well as its use onboard Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs). Tests of the modified OPC using monodisperse polystyrene spherical (PS) particles having sizes between 0.8 and 2.5 μm show that both the sizing and counting performance of the modified instrument is in agreement with that of a calibrated reference OPC at concentrations from ca. 50 to 800 #/ml, which are typically encountered in the atmosphere in that size range. For particle number concentrations below or above this range, we observed a concentration-dependent counting efficiency, which can be corrected using a polynomial function derived from our measurements. Tests conducted under reduced pressure and temperature conditions demonstrate the capability of the modified OPC for accurately (i.e., within 13% deviation from the reference measurements) determining the size and number concentration of the sampled particles. The tests reported in this work show that the proposed modification can qualify the Alphasense OPC for use in both ground and aerial observations without affecting its performance, and at the same time maintaining its strongly desired characteristics (i.e., cost effectiveness and high portability).@en