The development of high-fidelity three-dimensional (3D) tissue models can minimize the need for animal models in clinical medicine and drug development. However, physical limitations regarding the distances within which diffusion processes are effective impose limitations on the size of such constructs. That is because larger-size constructs experience necrosis, especially in their centers, due to the cells residing deep inside such constructs not receiving enough oxygen and nutrients. This hampers the sustained in vitro growth of the tissues which is required for achieving functional microtissues. To address this challenge, we used three types of 3D printing technologies to create perfusable networks at different length scales and integrate them into such constructs. Toward this aim, networks incorporating porous conduits with increasingly complex configurations were designed and fabricated using fused deposition modeling, stereolithography, and two-photon polymerization while optimizing the printing conditions for each of these technologies. Furthermore, following network embedding in hydrogels, contrast agent-enhanced micro-computed tomography and confocal fluorescence microscopy were employed to characterize one of the essential network functionalities, namely the diffusion function. The investigations revealed the effects of various design parameters on the diffusion behavior of the porous conduits over 24 h. We found that the number of pores exerts the most significant influence on the diffusion behavior of the contrast agent, followed by variations in the pore size and hydrogel concentration. The analytical approach and the findings of this study establish a solid base for a new technological platform to fabricate perfusable multiscale 3D porous networks with complex designs while enabling the customization of diffusion characteristics to meet specific requirements for sustained in vitro tissue growth. Statement of significance: This study addresses an essential limitation of current 3D tissue engineering, namely, sustaining tissue viability in larger constructs through optimized nutrient and oxygen delivery. By utilizing advanced 3D printing techniques this research proposes the fabrication of perfusable, multiscale and customizable networks that enhance diffusion and enable cell access to essential nutrients throughout the construct. The findings highlighted the role of network characteristics on the diffusion of a model compound within a hydrogel matrix. This work represents a promising technological platform for creating advanced in vitro 3D tissue models that can reduce the use of animal models in research involving tissue regeneration, disease models and drug development.

In this work, we utilize single-particle tracking photoactivated localization microscopy (sptPALM) to explore lipid dynamics in colloid-supported lipid bilayers (CSLBs) with liquid-like (DOPC), gel-like (DPPC), and phase-separated (DOPC:DPPC:cholesterol) membranes. Using total internal reflection fluorescence illumination, we tracked photoactivatable fluorescent dyes conjugated to lipids within these membranes. Analysis of tracked lipids revealed that bilayers across all compositions have heterogeneous dynamics, with lipid mobility varying over three orders of magnitude. We leveraged the temperature-dependent phase behavior of DPPC to transform gel-like membranes at room temperature into liquid-like membranes above 41 °C, which resulted in increased diffusivity and a surprising decrease in heterogeneity. Finally, we perform single lipid tracking in fluid-rich phases within gel-phase regions to demonstrate their dynamics with reduced lipid mobility because of soft confinement within phase-separated microdomains. Our findings have implications for colloidal assembly strategies that exploit ligand mobility to create controlled and reproducible colloidal superstructures.

Exopolysaccharides produced by lactic acid bacteria are widely used to improve the sensory properties of yogurt. The relation between the physical properties of the microbial exopolysaccharides and the structural and rheological properties of the yogurt are incompletely understood to date. To address this knowledge gap, we studied how two distinct exopolysaccharides influence the microstructure, rheological properties, and syneresis of yogurt. The effect of a negatively charged, capsular exopolysaccharide produced by Streptococcus thermophilus and a neutral, non-capsular exopolysaccharide produced by Lactococcus lactis were investigated. Using quantitative microstructural analysis, we examined yogurt samples prepared with either the capsular or the non-capsular exopolysaccharide, and with mixtures of the two. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and stimulated emission depletion microscopy were employed to visualize the microstructures, revealing differences in pore size distribution, protein domain size, and casein interconnectivity that were not apparent through visual inspection alone. Additionally, variations in rheological properties were observed among the different yogurt types. In the yogurt fermented with both bacterial strains, we observed a combined impact of the two exopolysaccharide types on relevant microstructural and rheological properties. The negatively charged capsular exopolysaccharide enhanced casein interconnectivity and gel stiffness, while the neutral non-capsular exopolysaccharide led to thicker protein domains, an abundance of small pores, and a lower loss tangent. These factors collectively hindered syneresis, resulting in improved structural integrity. Our study not only provides valuable insights into the influence of different exopolysaccharides on yogurt properties, but also presents the first demonstration and quantification of the effect of multiple types of exopolysaccharides on casein interconnectivity. These findings offer guidance for the production of yogurts with customized microstructure, rheological properties, and resistance to syneresis.

In the present study, the influence of topographic and mechanical cues on neuronal growth cones (NGCs) and network directionality in 3D-engineered cell culture models is explored. Two-photon polymerization (2PP) is employed to fabricate nanopillar arrays featuring tunable effective shear modulus. Large variations in mechanical properties are obtained by altering the aspect ratio of the nanostructures. The nanopillar arrays are seeded with different neuronal cell lines, including neural progenitor cells (NPCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), I³Neurons, and primary hippocampal neurons. All cell types exhibit preferential orientations according to the nanopillar topology, as shown by neurites creating a high number of oriented orthogonal networks. Furthermore, the differentiation and maturation of NPCs are affected by the topographic and mechanical properties of the nanopillars, as shown by the expression of the mature neuronal marker Synapsin I. Lastly, NGCs are influenced by effective shear modulus in terms of spreading area, and stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) is employed to assess the cytoskeleton organization at nanometric resolution. The developed approach, involving laser-assisted 3D microfabrication, neuro-mechanobiology, and super-resolution microscopy, paves the way for prospective comparative studies on the evolution of neuronal networks and NGCs in healthy and diseased (e.g., neurodegenerative) conditions.