Concrete segments are commonly utilized as linings in shield tunnels to support the load from the surrounding ground, with their mechanical performance playing a crucial role in ensuring tunnel safety. During the construction of shield tunnels, these segments are assembled on-site, and grouting is performed concurrently to promptly fill the gap between the segment and the surrounding ground. However, inadequate grouting can lead to the formation of voids, which are hidden construction defects that compromise the mechanical stability of the tunnel segments. This study explores the impact of grouting voids on the mechanical performance of concrete segmental tunnels during construction using a 3D numerical simulation. A 3D finite-element model of a segmented shield tunnel with grouting voids was developed based on the load-structure method. The analysis focused on the effects of void characteristics, such as their angle, position, and length, on the tunnel's mechanical behavior. The results indicate that voids located at the tunnel crown reduce the vertical convergence of the tunnel cross-section, while voids at the waist exacerbate its horizontal convergence. Additionally, the presence of voids alters the bending moment distribution in the segments. Compared to the case without a void, there is a reversal of the bending moment when the void is located at the crown, and the bending moment increases from −13 kN·m to 24 kN·m, potentially causing tensile damage. Furthermore, voids also induce stress concentration within the segments, and the maximum stress concentration factor (SCF) occurs at the center of the voids as 2.44. However, when a circumferential joint intersects the void, joint opening causes stress redistribution, with the most significant stress concentration appearing at 45° on both sides of the void. These findings contribute to better damage recognition and enhance the safety assurance of concrete shield tunnels.

With the rapid urbanization and development of metropolises, urban road tunnels have been constructed at an increasing rate, significantly alleviating urban traffic pressure, and improving urban resilience. Fire hazards have become a major threat to modern road tunnels due to the growing popularity of electric vehicles and high-density transportation of goods, particularly flammable materials. Asphalt pavements, as an essential component of road tunnels, may release harmful effluences and smoke under high temperatures, exacerbating the fire and adding risk to life safety. It is hence critical to investigate fire-retarding asphalt materials and their potential use in urban road tunnels pavements. This paper provides a comprehensive review of fire-retarding asphalt pavements for urban road tunnel pavements. The review covers tunnel fire generation mechanisms, evaluation methods, flame retardants for asphalt pavements, and recent developments in flame retardant technologies. By investigating these aspects, this paper aims to better understand the flammability of asphalt mixtures and asphalt pavements in urban road tunnels, promote the research of flame-retardant technology, and ultimately reduce the damage and loss caused by asphalt road tunnel fire accidents. Additionally, this study identifies the limitations of current research and provides an outlook for future research to contribute to the resilience of urban road tunnel structures and the longer service life of asphalt pavement in semi-closed road tunnels.

Quasi-rectangular shield tunneling is a cutting-edge trenchless method for constructing metro tunnels with double tubes, owing to its advantages in saving underground space and reducing ground disturbance. However, the conventional quasi-rectangular shield tunneling method is not applicable when constructing a tunnel without a center pillar, such as a scissor crossover section of a metro line. Therefore, the 0−θ tunneling method, which combines the quasi-rectangular shield and pipe jacking methods, was investigated in this study to solve the aforementioned construction challenges. This study presents a case study of the Sijiqing Station of the Hangzhou Metro Line 9 in China, in which the 0−θ method was first proposed and applied. Key techniques such as switching between two types of tunneling modes and the tunneling process control in complex construction environments were investigated. The results demonstrated that the 0−θ method can address the technical challenges presented by the post-transition line with a high curvature and a scissors crossover line. In addition, the adoption of the 0−θ method ensured that the transformation between shield tunneling and pipe jacking was safe and efficient. The ground settlement monitoring results demonstrated that the disturbance to the surrounding environment can be limited to a safe level. This case study contributes to the construction technology for a metro tunnel containing both post-transition lines with a small turning radius and a scissors crossover line. A practical construction experience and theoretical guidance were provided in this study, which are of significance for both the industry and academia.

Monitoring the deformations of immersed tunnels is important during the entire tunnel service life to assess the structural integrity of the tunnel. Conventional joint deformation monitoring is based on manual levelling measurements and normally occurs only at multi-year intervals, which does not allow to capture short term deformation behavior. In this study a new joint monitoring system using distributed optical fiber sensors (DOFS) is developed. A special sensor layout is designed that allows simultaneous measurements of both horizontal joint opening and vertical uneven settlement of the immersion and dilation joints. For this sensor scheme the transfer relation from fiber strain to joint deformation is derived and verified by in-lab experiments. The sensor system proves to be able to detect sub-millimeter joint deformations, indicating a more than sufficient accuracy for structural monitoring of immersed tunnel joints. Subsequently, the First Heinenoordtunnel in the Netherlands is instrumented using this distributed optical fiber sensing system, in order to obtain additional data for both long-term and short-term assessment of its structural condition.

The short-term deformation behavior of immersed tunnels due to daily or monthly temperature changes and tidal variations is often not monitored but forms important input for a structural health assessment of the tunnel. In this study, distributed optical fiber sensors (DOFSs) are used to monitor the short-term (daily and monthly) deformation behavior of an immersed tunnel. Joint opening and the relative settlement differences between tunnel elements are monitored simultaneously at subhour intervals. Measurements show that the variation in the joint opening is strongly correlated with temperature change, and the joint gap has a tendency to open at low temperatures and to close at increasing temperatures. Simultaneously, the entire immersed section behaves more like a rigid body and moves upwards and downwards periodically due to tidal fluctuations in the river, with an observed vertical movement of slightly less than one millimeter. The tide also causes local tilting of tunnel segments, and this tilting behavior differs between winter and summer, which implies that the (seasonal) temperature-induced joint deformations affect the robustness of the tunnel to tidal loads. A soil-tunnel structure interaction analysis reveals that the cyclic vertical movement of the tunnel is driven by retardation of the tidal wave in deeper soil layers, which can be captured by a coupled flow model. This study provides new insights into the short-term deformation behavior of immersed tunnels.

Backfill grouting plays a vital role in shield tunneling. This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of the development and progress of backfill grouting materials specifically designed for shield tunneling. Initially, the various components of grouts, such as pozzolanic materials, filling fine aggregates, and chemical additives, are introduced and discussed in detail. Subsequently, this study investigates critical properties including workability, mechanical properties, and durability of the grouts. Additionally, the principal factors influencing the properties are summarized, along with recommended ranges for specific geological conditions. Furthermore, the paper elucidates the diffusion mechanism of grouting mortars by presenting the current grouting models employed in shield tunneling. Recent advancements in grouting materials are extensively studied and extended, offering new perspectives for future grouting technology in shield tunneling. This study provides valuable insights into overcoming the existing challenges associated with shield tunnel grouting and promoting the evolution of current grouting materials.

Seasonal joint deformations within an immersed tunnel are important indicators to assess structural behavior and therefore should be monitored in detail. In this study, distributed optical fiber sensors (DOFS) are applied to precisely measure the seasonal joint deformations in an immersed tunnel for the first time. Measurements over a one-year period specifically reveal the impact of seasonal temperature variations on the joint opening and uneven settlement deformation. Field monitoring shows that the variation in joint opening exhibits a cyclic behavior and is strongly correlated with temperature change. The immersion joints generally show a larger range of seasonal opening (with a maximum of about 6 mm) than dilation joints, but at several dilation joints significant opening also occurs. The uneven or differential settlement at most joints stays below 1 mm, except at a few joints where the range is above 1 mm, which are indications of underlying structural defects in the tunnel. The observed joint uneven settlement also shows a seasonal variation, but the correlation with temperature is weak. The impacts of seasonal deformation on the structural integrity and watertightness of the tunnel are assessed, and further suggestions on tunnel maintenance and inspection are made.

Pipe jacking has been the dominant trenchless technology for constructing small (\2 m) to medium-diameter (\4 m) tunnels. Uncertainties and construction difficulties increase significantly when the diameter of the tunnel exceeds 4 m. This paper presents a case study of the largest concrete pipe-jacking tunnel project in the world, the sewerage tunnel along Jinshan Lake, Zhenjiang, China. In this project, an underwater tunnel with a diameter of 4.67 m was constructed by the earth pressure balance (EPB) pipe-jacking method. The case study reports project background, and geological and hydrogeology conditions. The key techniques such as the selection of pipe-jacking machine, jacking force estimation and control, design of intermediate jacking station, grouting process control, launching, and reception of the tunnel boring machine, trajectory control of pipe jacking, and ventilation and gas monitoring during the construction period were investigated and discussed. Furthermore, to overcome the technical difficulties associated with the oversized jacked tunnel, the corresponding countermeasures were adopted point by point, so that the safety of the whole project could be guaranteed. This study filled the knowledge gap of technical know-how for large-diameter (over 4.5 m) pipe-jacking tunnel and is expected to provide practical guide for future large-diameter pipe-jacking tunnels.

Distributed optical fiber sensors (DOFS) allow for distributed strain sensing and can be installed to function as extensometers for measuring point-displacements. This paper discusses the metrics of optimal sensing fiber selection for point-displacement measuring. Key metrics include the physical structure, mechanical parameters and light transmission coefficients. Calibration tests for verification of the optical fiber properties are designed and results of four fiber types are presented. Finally, creep and relaxation behavior of optical fibers is discussed based on manual tension test results, and a quantification model is proposed to assess the induced measurement error for sensing fiber. The maximum (absolute) measurement error for two common fiber types used in point displacement measurements is determined to be below 8%, and the study shows that pretensioning of the fiber helps to reduce such measurement errors.

In this paper, a probabilistic analysis is implemented to determine the settlement of immersed tunnel elements and the effects of subsoil stiffness variability. A soil-structure interaction model is used to study the effects of subsoil stiffness on the shear behavior of tunnel joints. Site investigation data is obtained from the Hongkong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge (HZMB) Tunnel project in China. Two probabilistic methods, the Point Estimate Method and Monte Carlo simulation, are compared when determining the tunnel settlements. The first is computationally more efficient and has sufficient accuracy, while the latter is extremely accurate with higher computational costs. Based on the settlement results, spatial variability of the soil stiffness is quantitatively assessed. The soil-structure interaction analysis and derivation of shear forces in tunnel joints is performed by coupling FE analysis to a Monte-Carlo model. The results show that tunnel structure behavior is significantly influenced by the soil parameters uncertainty.