Context. Exomoons are expected to orbit gas giant exoplanets just as moons orbit Solar System planets. Tidal heating is present in Solar System satellites, and it can heat up their interior, depending on their orbital and interior properties. Aims. We aim to identify a tidally heated exomoon's (THEM) orbital parameter space that would make it observable in infrared wavelengths with MIRI/JWST around Ïμ Eridani b. We study the possible constraints on orbital eccentricity and interior properties that a successful THEM detection in infrared wavelengths can bring. We also investigate what exomoon properties need to be independently known in order to place these constraints. Methods. We used a coupled thermal-tidal model to find stable equilibrium points between the tidally produced heat and the heat transported within a moon. For the latter, we considered a spherical and radially symmetric satellite with heat being transported via magma advection in a sublayer of melt (asthenosphere) and convection in the lower mantle. We incorporated uncertainties in the interior and tidal model parameters to assess the fraction of simulated moons that would be observable with MIRI. Results. We find that a 2RIo THEM orbiting Ïμ Eridani b with an eccentricity of 0.02 would need to have a semi-major axis of 4 planetary Roche radii for 100% of the simulations to produce an observable moon. These values are comparable with the orbital properties of the satellites of the Solar System gas giants. We placed similar constraints for eccentricities up to 0.1. We conclude that if the semi-major axis and radius of the moon are known (e.g., with exomoon transits), tidal dissipation can constrain the orbital eccentricity and interior properties of the satellite, such as the presence of melt and the thickness of the melt-containing sublayer.@en

In the last fifty years, the spacemissions Voyager, Galileo, Cassini-Huygens and Juno explored the moons of the outer Solar System and revealed a wide spectrum of worlds. While some of these worlds are barren, others are among the most geologically active of the Solar System. The innermost Jovian moon, Io, showcases spectacular volcanic activity; its three companions, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, are likely ocean worlds that harbour subsurface oceans beneath their icy crusts. Similarly, the biggest Saturnian moon, Titan, is believed to have a subsurface ocean concealed beneath its icy surface and dense atmosphere. Saturn’s collection of smaller icy bodies feature different levels of activity, Enceladus being the most remarkable. Above its limb, water plumes rise more than hundred kilometers spilling its internal ocean into Saturn’s E-ring. In Neptune, the captured moon Triton orbits in a peculiar retrograde orbit; its barely cratered surface is similar to that of other ocean worlds and shows signs of cryovolcanic activity. The spectrum of geological activity displayed by the moons of the outer Solar System is thought to bemainly the consequence of tides.@en

Enceladus, with its subsurface ocean, is amongst the top priority targets in the search for life beyond Earth. Following on discoveries from the Cassini mission that Enceladus possesses a global subsurface ocean containing salt and organic compounds, there are many unconstrained properties of the ocean and ice shell that must be investigated to further assess the habitability of Enceladus and begin the search for biosignatures on Enceladus. In this paper, we present a concept study for a New Frontiers class multi-lander and orbiter mission to Enceladus that investigates if there is or ever was a habitable environment on Enceladus. The mission architecture includes an orbiter for detailed chemical analysis of material erupted from Enceladus’ plumes and four impact landers for geophysical measurements. As part of our mission concept study, we explore key trades for orbital and surface science, as well as assess the scientific potential and hazards of candidate landing sites on Enceladus. The novelty of our mission architecture and consideration of both orbital and surface science elements makes this work directly relevant to a broad range of potential future mission architectures under consideration, such as those identified in the 2023–2032 Planetary Science and Astrobiology Decadal Survey.@en

The inferred density of Enceladus' core, together with evidence of hydrothermal activity within the moon, suggests that the core is porous. Tidal dissipation in an unconsolidated core has been proposed as the main source of Enceladus' geological activity. However, the tidal response of its core has generally been modeled assuming it behaves viscoelastically rather than poroviscoelastically. In this work, we analyze the poroviscoelastic response to better constrain the distribution of tidal dissipation within Enceladus. A poroviscoelastic body has a different tidal response than a viscoelastic one; pressure within the pores alters the stress field and induces a Darcian porous flow. This flow represents an additional pathway for energy dissipation. Using Biot's theory of poroviscoelasticity, we develop a new framework to obtain the tidal response of a spherically symmetric, self-gravitating moon with porous layers and apply it to Enceladus. We show that the boundary conditions at the interface of the core and overlying ocean play a key role in the tidal response. The ocean hinders the development of a large-amplitude Darcian flow, making negligible the Darcian contribution to the dissipation budget. We therefore infer that Enceladus' core can be the source of its geological activity only if it has a low rigidity and a very low viscosity. A future mission to Enceladus could test this hypothesis by measuring the phase lags of tidally induced changes of gravitational potential and surface displacements.@en

Some of the moons of the outer solar system harbour subsurface liquid oceans. Tidal dissipation plays an important role in preventing these oceans from freezing. In the past, most studies considered only tidal dissipation in the solid layers of these bodies (rock and ice). Recently, new studies considering tidal dissipation in the oceans of these moons have appeared. All of them make use of the shallow water approximation. However, the use of this approximation might not be adequate. Here we consider the linear non-hydrostatic three dimensional response of these oceans to tidal forcing with the full Coriolis force. To do so we consider an ocean of homogeneous density contained within a perfectly spherical shell and neglect the effect of the ice shell. We force the ocean with a time changing tidal potential and observe patterns of periodic inertial waves that take energy from the global tidal forcing and focus it along thin shear layers that propagate in the fluid. We focus on Europa and Enceladus, showing that inertial waves result in fluid flows of significant amplitude (a few cm/s). Nevertheless, we find that under the previously mentioned assumptions tidal dissipation due to inertial waves is several orders of magnitude smaller than Europa's radiogenic heating and Enceladus’ observed heat flux. Finally, we propose additional dissipation mechanisms that might play a relevant role in Europa and Enceladus and could be further investigated.@en

Tidal heating can play an important role in the formation and evolution of subsurface oceans of outer-planet moons. Up until now tidal heating has only been studied in subsurface oceans of spatially uniform thickness. We develop a numerical model to consider oceans of spatially variable thickness. We use the Laplace Tidal Equations for the ocean and model the ice shell using membrane theory. The problem is solved using the commercial Finite Element software Comsol Multiphysics®. We use this new model to study the tidal response of Enceladus' ocean with a twofold objective: to understand how ocean thickness variations modify the tidal response of a subsurface ocean and to assess if tidal dissipation in an Enceladan ocean with varying ocean thickness can explain the high heat flux emanating from Enceladus' South Polar Terrain and the perdurance of a subsurface ocean. We consider the effect of meridional ocean thickness changes of spherical harmonic degree two and three as suggested by topography and gravimetry data. We observe that an ocean with degree two topography responds with the same eigenmodes as an ocean of constant thickness but resonances occur for thicker oceans. However, resonant ocean thicknesses are still thin compared to current estimates for Enceladus ocean thickness. Rossby-Haurwitz waves, excited by the obliquity tide for thick oceans of constant thickness, are not excited at the tidal frequency when oceans of variable thickness are considered. This result implies that the role of the obliquity tide in ocean tidal-dissipation might have been overestimated for Enceladus and other icy worlds. An antisymmetric, degree-three ocean thickness variation mixes the ocean modes excited in a constant thickness ocean by the eccentricity and obliquity tide.@en

Tidal heating can play an important role in the formation and evolution of subsurface oceans of outer-planet moons. Up until now tidal heating has only been studied in subsurface oceans of spatially uniform thickness. We develop a numerical model to consider oceans of spatially variable thickness. We use the Laplace Tidal Equations for the ocean and model the ice shell using membrane theory. The problem is solved using the commercial Finite Element software Comsol Multiphysics®. We use this new model to study the tidal response of Enceladus' ocean with a twofold objective: to understand how ocean thickness variations modify the tidal response of a subsurface ocean and to assess if tidal dissipation in an Enceladan ocean with varying ocean thickness can explain the high heat flux emanating from Enceladus' South Polar Terrain and the perdurance of a subsurface ocean. We consider the effect of meridional ocean thickness changes of spherical harmonic degree two and three as suggested by topography and gravimetry data. We observe that an ocean with degree two topography responds with the same eigenmodes as an ocean of constant thickness but resonances occur for thicker oceans. However, resonant ocean thicknesses are still thin compared to current estimates for Enceladus ocean thickness. Rossby-Haurwitz waves, excited by the obliquity tide for thick oceans of constant thickness, are not excited at the tidal frequency when oceans of variable thickness are considered. This result implies that the role of the obliquity tide in ocean tidal-dissipation might have been overestimated for Enceladus and other icy worlds. An antisymmetric, degree-three ocean thickness variation mixes the ocean modes excited in a constant thickness ocean by the eccentricity and obliquity tide.@en

A growing number of satellites in the outer solar system likely have global oceans beneath their outer icy shells. While the presence of liquid water makes these ocean worlds compelling astrobiological targets, the exchange of heat and materials between the deep interior and the surface also plays a critical role in promoting habitable environments. In this article, we combine geophysical, geochemical, and geological observations of the Jovian satellites Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto as well as the Saturnian satellites Enceladus and Titan to summarize our current state of understanding of their interiors and surface exchange processes. Potential mechanisms for driving exchange processes upward from the ocean floor and downward from the satellite surface are then reviewed, which are primarily based on numerical models of ice shell and ocean dynamics and complemented by terrestrial analog studies. Future missions to explore these exo-oceans will further revolutionize our understanding of ice-ocean exchange processes and their implications for the habitability of these worlds.@en

A growing number of satellites in the outer solar system likely have global oceans beneath their outer icy shells. While the presence of liquid water makes these ocean worlds compelling astrobiological targets, the exchange of heat and materials between the deep interior and the surface also plays a critical role in promoting habitable environments. In this article, we combine geophysical, geochemical, and geological observations of the Jovian satellites Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto as well as the Saturnian satellites Enceladus and Titan to summarize our current state of understanding of their interiors and surface exchange processes. Potential mechanisms for driving exchange processes upward from the ocean floor and downward from the satellite surface are then reviewed, which are primarily based on numerical models of ice shell and ocean dynamics and complemented by terrestrial analog studies. Future missions to explore these exo-oceans will further revolutionize our understanding of ice-ocean exchange processes and their implications for the habitability of these worlds.@en

A growing number of satellites in the outer solar system likely have global oceans beneath their outer icy shells. While the presence of liquid water makes these ocean worlds compelling astrobiological targets, the exchange of heat and materials between the deep interior and the surface also plays a critical role in promoting habitable environments. In this article, we combine geophysical, geochemical, and geological observations of the Jovian satellites Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto as well as the Saturnian satellites Enceladus and Titan to summarize our current state of understanding of their interiors and surface exchange processes. Potential mechanisms for driving exchange processes upward from the ocean floor and downward from the satellite surface are then reviewed, which are primarily based on numerical models of ice shell and ocean dynamics and complemented by terrestrial analog studies. Future missions to explore these exo-oceans will further revolutionize our understanding of ice-ocean exchange processes and their implications for the habitability of these worlds.@en

Thousands of exoplanets have been discovered; however, the detection of exomoons remains elusive. Tidally heated exomoons have been proposed as candidate targets for observation; vigorous tidal dissipation can raise the moon's surface temperature, making direct imaging possible, and cause widespread volcanism that can have a signature in transits. We assess whether the required amounts of tidal dissipation can be attained and how long it can be sustained. In a first step, we look at the thermal state of a super-Io for different orbital configurations. We show that close-in exomoons with moderate (e ≈ eIo) to high (e ≈ 0.1) orbital eccentricities can feature surface heat fluxes 1-3 orders of magnitude higher than that of Io if heat transfer is dominated by heat piping or the moon has a magma ocean. In a second step, we investigate the longevity of a super-Io. The free eccentricity of an isolated close-in exomoon is quickly dampened due to tides; high orbital eccentricities can be maintained if the moon is in a mean-motion resonance with another moon and the planet is highly dissipative. However, this scenario leads to fast orbital migration. For a Mars-sized exomoon, we find that tides alone can raise the surface temperatures to more than 400 K for 10 million yr, and surface heat fluxes higher than that of Io can be maintained for billions of years. Such tidally active bodies are expected to feature more vigorous volcanic activity than Io. The material outgassed via volcanism might be detected in transits.@en

The Barents Sea is situated on a continental margin and was home to a large ice sheet at the Last Glacial Maximum. Studying the solid Earth response to the removal of this ice sheet (glacial isostatic adjustment; GIA) can give insight into the subsurface rheology of this region. However, because the region is currently covered by ocean, uplift measurements from the center of the former ice sheet are not available. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) gravity data have been shown to be able to constrain GIA. Here we analyze GRACE data for the period 2003-2015 in the Barents Sea and use the data to constrain GIA models for the region. We study the effect of uncertainty in non-tidal ocean mass models that are used to correct GRACE data and find that it should be taken into account when studying solid Earth signals in oceanic areas from GRACE. We compare GRACE-derived gravity disturbance rates with GIA model predictions for different ice deglaciation chronologies of the last glacial cycle and find that best-fitting models have an upper mantle viscosity equal or higher than <span classCombining double low line"inline-formula">3×1020</span>&thinsp;<span classCombining double low line"inline-formula">Pa s</span>. Following a similar procedure for Fennoscandia we find that the preferred upper mantle viscosity there is a factor 2 larger than in the Barents Sea for a range of lithospheric thickness values. This factor is shown to be consistent with the ratio of viscosities derived for both regions from global seismic models. The viscosity difference can serve as constraint for geodynamic models of the area.@en

Body tides reveal information about planetary interiors and affect their evolution. Most models to compute body tides rely on the assumption of a spherically symmetric interior. However, several processes can lead to lateral variations of interior properties. We present a new spectral method to compute the tidal response of laterally heterogeneous bodies. Compared to previous spectral methods, our approach is not limited to small-amplitude lateral variations; compared to finite element codes, this approach is more computationally efficient. While the tidal response of a spherically symmetric body has the same wavelength as the tidal force; lateral heterogeneities produce an additional tidal response with a spectra that depends on the spatial pattern of such variations. For Mercury, the Moon, and Io, the amplitude of this signal is as high as 1%-10% of the main tidal response for long-wavelength shear modulus variations higher than ∼10% of the mean shear modulus. For Europa, Ganymede, and Enceladus, shell-thickness variations of 50% of the mean shell thickness can cause an additional signal of ∼1% and ∼10% for the Jovian moons and Encelaudus, respectively. Future missions, such as BepiColombo and JUICE, might measure these signals. Lateral variations of viscosity affect the distribution of tidal heating. This can drive the thermal evolution of tidally active bodies and affect the distribution of active regions.@en

The marine portion of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) in the Amundsen Sea Embayment (ASE) accounts for one-fourth of the cryospheric contribution to global sea-level rise and is vulnerable to catastrophic collapse. The bedrock response to ice mass loss, glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA), was thought to occur on a time scale of 10,000 years. We used new GPS measurements, which show a rapid (41 millimeters per year) uplift of the ASE, to estimate the viscosity of the mantle underneath. We found a much lower viscosity (4 × 1018 pascal-second) than global average, and this shortens the GIA response time scale to decades up to a century. Our finding requires an upward revision of ice mass loss from gravity data of 10% and increases the potential stability of the WAIS against catastrophic collapse.@en