This article illustrates that the task design and problem selection are of characteristic influence to evoke sense-reason-act programming (SRA) among primary school pupils when programming robots. Research shows that the task design influences the development of computational thinking (CT). The literature provides evidence that the context, the problem space, and the representation of the problem to apply SRA-programming require the programming task to be embedded in a dynamic context in which a programmable robot must use sensory information to anticipate changes in the environment. In order to ascertain whether the problem space and the task design influence the evocation of SRA-thinking, this article uses a research design comparing the differences between two programming conditions (static/dynamic). In these conditions, pupils use Lego EV-3 robots and Mindstorms software to solve programming problems. As a post-measurement, a Lego challenge is applied. In this article, it is shown that the integration of a dynamic task design to solve a programming problem is essential for a deeper understanding of CT skills. Furthermore, when pupils can immediately test the consequences of their program in a dynamic environment and, thus, the learning environment provides an appropriate problem, they gain a deeper understanding of the added value of sensors and will be better able to reason about complex problems. It is found that programming in a dynamic problem environment almost naturally evokes SRA-thinking, as opposed to programming in a static environment. The influence of SRA-programming as demonstrated identifies characteristics of CT.@en

One major challenge the educational community is facing relates to how to effectively integrate computational thinking (CT) concepts and ideas into a particular school curriculum. Acquiring CT-skills by means of STEM offers rich opportunities within students´ education which may lead to learning gains. Previous research has shown that, to maximize the appeal and potential of CT learning environments, a precondition must be set first. The materials used must invite problem-based, inquiry-based and self-discovery learning, must be used without creating misconceptions and, above all, must give students the opportunity to acquire knowledge that can be directly transferred to everyday practice in an accessible manner. All the above puts demands on teachers who carry out learning and teaching in these environments. The EU funded TACTIDE project has tried to incorporate relevant curricular components into a coherent task, implementing assignments and challenges across different subjects and curricula of three different European countries. Based on the analysis of each national curricula, common topics have been identified and sub-scenarios have been developed. These sub-scenarios have been conceived to promote the integration between the topics mediated by CT. To achieve this objective, a greenhouse scenario has been conceptualized and designed towards teaching CT, by the use of microcontrollers such as the BBC micro:bit and the Calliope Mini, as an overarching STEM-topic. Using available sub-scenarios, a Moodle-course for teachers was developed for daily school activities to which other subjects in the core curriculum were interconnected in order to integrate CT skills and abilities. Scalability across different school levels and heterogeneous groups of learners, especially focusing prior knowledge, have been considered important design elements.@en

The application of sense-reason-act (SRA) programming in contemporary education can ensure the development of computational thinking (CT) at a more advanced level. SRA-programming has been identified as an instrumental way of thinking for learning to program robots and encourages the development of the more complex concepts of programming. Visual programming environments are diverse in appearance and prove to be an excellent way to teach pupils the basic ideas of programming. It is important to investigate whether the type of output has a characteristic influence on the level of development of CT in visual programming environments. In this research, we therefore explore whether characteristic differences in the development of CT can be measured when SRA-programming is applied in a visual programming environment with an on-screen output or a tangible output. It was expected that the observed effect of pupils' programming actions through the application of SRA would show that the type of output influences the understanding of complex programming concepts at a higher level. Our results indicate that SRA-programming with visual, on-screen output yields a significant increase in the development of CT, as opposed to SRA-programming with a tangible output. The development of complex programming concepts can also be demonstrated.@en

This study investigates the development of algorithmic thinking as a part of computational thinking skills and self-efficacy of primary school pupils using programmable robots in different instruction variants. Computational thinking is defined in the context of twenty-first century skills and describes processes involved in (re)formulating a problem in a way that a computer can process it. Programming robots offers specific affordances as it can be used to develop programs following a Sense-Reason-Act (SRA) cycle. The literature provides evidence that programming robots has the potential to enhance algorithmic thinking as a component of computational thinking. Specifically there are indications that pupils who use SRA-programming learn algorithmic skills better and achieve a higher level of self-efficacy in an open, scaffold learning environment than through direct instruction. In order to determine the influence of the instruction variant used, an experimental research design was made in which pupils solved algorithm-based mathematical problems (grid diagrams) in a preliminary measurement and their self-efficacy determined via a questionnaire. As an intervention, pupils learn to solve programming issues in pairs using “Lego NXT” robots and “Mindstorms” software in two instruction variants. The post-measurement consists of a Lego challenge, solving mathematical problems (grid diagrams), and a repeated self-efficacy questionnaire. This research shows an increase of our measures on algorithmic thinking dependent on the amount of SRA usage (though not significant). Programming using the SRA-cycle can be considered as the cause of the measured effect. The instruction variant used during the robotic intervention seems to play only a marginal role.@en

Visual programming environments are popular instruments in teaching Computational Thinking (CT) in schools today. Applying Sense-Reason-Act (SRA) programming can influence the development of computational thinking when forcing pupils to anticipate the unforeseen in their computer programs. SRA-programming originates from the programming of tangible robots, but can also be of equal value in visual programming with on-screen output. The underlying rationale is that programming in a visual programming environment using SRA leads to more understanding of the computational concepts addressed, resulting in a higher level of computational skill compared to visual programming without the application of SRA. Furthermore, it has been hypothesised that if pupils in a visual programming environment can anticipate unforeseen events and solve programming tasks by applying SRA, they will be better able to solve complex computational thinking tasks. To establish if characteristic differences in the development of computational thinking can be measured when SRA-programming is applied in a visual programming environment with an on-screen output, we assessed the applicability of SRA-programming with visual output as the main component of the execution of developed code. This research uses a pre-test post-test design that reveals significant differences in the development of computational thinking in two treatment conditions. To assess CT, the Computational Thinking Test (CTt) was used. Results show that when using SRA-programming in a visual programming environment it leads to an increased understanding of complex computational concepts, which results in a significant increase in the development of computational thinking.@en