The authors wish to replace the flood hazard map in Fig. 11a with an updated map for the Acerra region. The legend has been revised to display only the minimum and maximum flood depth values.(Figure presented) Fig. 11. (a) Flood hazard map for the Acerra region (Pluvial flooding - RCP 8.5 for year 2050, 50th Percentile - 1000 years return period) overlayed on the case study buildings (highlighted in orange).

Building energy prediction models expedite performance assessment and assist in decision making, from early-stage design to retrofit planning at single- or multi-building scales. However, the number of parameters involved in the energy performance evaluation often impede the prediction process requiring the assimilation of high-dimensional, uncertain input. This is compounded further at multi-building scale e.g. urban energy modelling, due to the increased complexity of evaluating diverse building geometries. While single-building sensitivity and uncertainty analysis is well-established for identifying the most influential input parameters and evaluate the uncertainty effects on energy demand, these are hard to generalize at multi-building scale which remains relatively unexplored. The present study advances existing research by applying a variance-based sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of varying (i) building façade layout, (ii) envelope thermal properties, (iii) envelope air tightness and (iv) building occupancy. The analysis is conducted for multiple buildings under two future climate variations, while also considering the degradation of material thermal properties. The latter is derived from known deterioration models for single-building uncertainty propagation, relying on experimental and simulated data. The approach is applied to a temperate oceanic climate with particular focus on the Dutch building stock, including a sample of buildings with diverse geometric characteristics in Rotterdam. First-order Sobol indices are computed to evaluate the impact with respect to the heating, cooling and total energy demand. Our findings indicate that infiltration is the most influential factor for heating energy demand, whereas cooling is mostly affected by the envelope thermal properties and, particularly, window solar heat gain coefficient. Common patterns regarding the impact of insulation across different envelope components can be identified among buildings with similar orientation and compactness ratio indicating the importance of considering these geometric properties in retrofit decision-making workflows.

The built environment is vulnerable to climate-induced extreme events and natural disasters, which are repeatedly exposing communities to severe consequences and market disruptions. In response, the construction industry is developing resilient technologies for buildings, but the proposed solutions are often not cost-effective, rarely eco-friendly and typically fail to address multiple hazards present in many locations. These shortcomings stem from the absence of a clearly defined framework for quantifying holistic multi-hazard resilience. As a result, investment decisions are ill-informed and technical solutions are sub-optimal. This paper redresses this issue by proposing quantitative indicators and introducing the Resilience Readiness Levels to assess the resilience of buildings, considering multi-domain factors (physical, social, economic, environmental) in single or multi-hazard contexts (heat, seismic, wind, flood). The proposed resilience indices and calculation methods are based on a diverse set of scientific literature and real-world practices, and are demonstrated on Dutch and Italian urban blocks with different local hazards and building layouts. The results show that the multi-domain resilience approach can support informed early-stage building design and retrofit decision-making for single hazards, while aiding prioritization and intervention planning for improving building disaster preparedness in multi-hazard scenarios.

Advances in structural glass have enabled a new paradigm in expressive and transparent architecture. Cast glass can further extend the possibilities of structural glass by allowing for more complex and sophisticated shapes than the current planar geometries of structural float glass. However, the use of cast glass is currently limited because of the lengthy annealing process, making massive component sizes impractical to fabricate. Topology optimization (TO) has been proposed as a solution to this problem, as it is known to generate structurally efficient designs with a low volume of material. If tailored appropriately, TO can reduce component sizes and thereby diminish the total annealing time needed, while intelligently placing material in the areas where it will be utilized most effectively. For TO of glass to be successful, algorithms must properly capture glass’s specific material behavior. This research proposes a suite of TO algorithmic frameworks that design specifically for structural glass. These algorithms are demonstrated in a 2D design space, and the resulting geometries are fabricated using cut float glass and tested for experimental comparison on a 4-point bending load case. The results of these experiments provide valuable insights into the development of TO for structural glass, and help inform future research in TO of large-scale cast glass structures.

Glass casting displays great forming potential allowing for the realisation of three-dimensional glass elements of virtually any shape and size, as showcased in glass art. Disposable mould technology seems to be ideal for the fabrication of such customised and complex geometries, including for architectural and structural cast glass components deriving from structural topology optimization, since it offers great shape freedom and cost effectiveness. However, currently, glass casting on disposable moulds faces the major drawback of a resulting rough and opaque glass surface quality, requiring considerable post-processing to yield a glossy, smooth surface. This in turn results in a compromised dimensional accuracy and on increased time and production costs. If the surface remains unprocessed, it can greatly affect not only the visual but also the mechanical properties of the cast glass element. Aim of this research is to improve the surface quality of complex glass components cast in disposable moulds, directly during demoulding, reducing in this way the need for post-processing. To achieve this the research focuses on exploring ways to pre-process disposable moulds. In specific, the research focuses on series of kiln-cast laboratory experiments at various maximum firing temperatures / annealing schedules involving the use of two different types of disposable moulds, 3D-printed sand moulds and silica plaster moulds (Crystalcast®), and the application of refractory coatings, coating combinations and protective layers. The experimental work conducted thus far indicates that the best results are obtained at the lowest maximum temperature tested (870 °C), with the combination offering the best finishing quality to be a synthetic (ceramic) sand mould coated with Crystalcast® and Zirkofluid® (6672, 1219). Scaling-up of the kiln-cast prototypes unveils a complex correlation between the maximum dwell time at the maximum firing temperature and the casting effectivity/ performance of mould materials and coatings.

This work develops a computational method that produces algorithmically generated design forms, able to overcome inherent challenges related to the use of cast glass for the creation of monolithic structural components with light permeability. Structural Topology Optimization (TO) has a novel applicability potential, as decreased mass is associated with shorter annealing times and, thus, considerably improved manufacturability in terms of time, energy, and cost efficiency. However, realistic TO in such structures is currently hindered by existing mathematical formulations and commercial software capabilities. Incorporating annealing constraints into the optimization problem is an essential feature that needs to be accommodated, whereas the brittle nature of glass invokes asymmetric stress failure criteria that cannot be captured by conventional ductile plasticity surfaces or uniform stress constraints. This paper addresses the approximation problems in the evaluation of principal stresses while concurrently incorporating annealing-related manufacturing constraints into a unified TO formulation. A mass minimization objective is articulated, as this is the most critical factor for cast glass structures. To ensure the structural integrity and manufacturability of the component, the applied constraints refer both to the glass material/structural properties and to criteria that ensue from the annealing and fabrication processes. The developed code is based on the penalized artificial density interpolation scheme and the optimization problem is solved with the interior-point method. The proposed formulation is applied in a planar design domain to explore how different glass compositions and structural design strategies affect the final shape. Upon extraction of the optimized shape, the structural performance of the respective 3D structures is validated with respect to performance constraint violations using the Ansys software. Finally, brief guidelines on the practical aspects of the manufacturing process are provided.

Recent research at TU Delft has highlighted the potential of using structural Topology Optimization (TO) for designing large monolithic cast glass structures of maximized stiffness with minimal mass. The mass efficiency of these structures results in considerably shorter annealing times and, consequently in improved manufacturability in terms of time, energy and cost efficiency. Nonetheless, the geometrical complexity and customization of the resulting forms renders them challenging in terms of fabrication. Exploring the manufacturability of such intricate glass structures, in this paper we discuss the different possible fabrication methods for three-dimensional glass structures of complex and customized geometries, via a review of existing literature, experimental work and prototyping. Specifically, with the aim of addressing all possible manufacturing solutions, we look into the following fabrication methods: (i) casting in disposable moulds; (ii) waterjet cutting and lamination of float glass panes and; (iii) additive manufacturing of glass. We assess these methods based on a set of criteria linked to the structural performance, visual quality, fabrication limitations and sustainability. Accordingly, we discuss the potential, challenges and practical limitations of each fabrication method for real-world applications of TO glass structures. Subsequently, we propose the integration of alternative constraints into the TO formulation, so that customized TO tools that better reflect each fabrication method can be created.

This paper introduces the use of structural topology optimization (TO) as a new design approach that enables the creation of monolithic load-bearing cast glass components of substantial dimensions with significantly reduced annealing times, rendering such components viable in terms of manufacturing. Using topology optimization, the glass mass can be optimized to match design loads whilst maintaining high stiffness and a homogeneous mass for even cooling. Initially, the two main TO approaches are discussed in terms of suitability for cast glass. A strain-based optimization is eventually preferred over Von Mises optimization in the specific study. To explore the potential of TO for optimizing structural cast glass components, three distinct studies are analyzed in ANSYS workbench: (i) a structural glass node, (ii) a cast glass floor and (iii) a pedestrian bridge. These lead to the establishment of a set of design/input criteria, taking into account glass as a material, casting as a manufacturing method, addressing also the safety of the structure. The design studies also reveal the inherent challenges of using TO for load-bearing glass components, which, in turn, lead to the establishment of design guidelines for developing a TO tool specifically for glass. Towards the real-life applicability of such complex-shaped, customized components, possible manufacturing methods are also discussed.