Wave breaking in the ocean affects the height of extreme waves, energy dissipation, and interaction between the atmosphere and upper ocean. Numerical modelling is a critical step in understanding the physics of wave breaking and offers insight that is hard to gain from field data or experiments. High-fidelity numerical modelling of three-dimensional breaking waves is extremely challenging. Conventional grid-based numerical methods struggle to model the steep and double-valued free surfaces that occur during wave breaking. The Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method does not fall prey to these issues. Herein, we examine the SPH method's ability to model highly directionally spread overturning breaking waves by numerically reproducing the experiments presented in McAllister et al. (2019). We find that the SPH method reproduces the experimental observations well; when comparing experimental and numerical measurements we achieve coefficient of determination values of 0.92−0.95, with some smaller-scale features less well reproduced owing to finite resolution. We also examine aspects of the simulated wave's geometry and kinematics and find that existing breaking criteria are difficult to apply in highly directionally spread conditions.@en

The notion that wave-following buoys provide less accurate measurements of extreme waves than their Eulerian counterparts is a perception commonly held by oceanographers and engineers (Forristall 2000, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 30, 1931-1943). By performing a direct comparison between the two types of measurement under laboratory conditions, we examine one of the hypotheses underlying this perception and establish whether wave measurement buoys in extreme ocean waves correctly follow steep crests and behave in a purely Lagrangian manner. We present a direct comparison between Eulerian gauge and Lagrangian buoy measurements of steep directionally spread and crossing wave groups on deep water. Our experimental measurements are compared to exact (Herbers and Janssen 2016, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 46, 1009-1021) and new approximate expression for Lagrangian second-order theory derived herein. We derive simple closed-form expressions for the second-order contribution to crest height representative of extreme ocean waves, namely for a single narrowly spread wave group, two narrowly spread crossing wave groups, and a strongly spread single wave group. In the limit of large spreading or head-on crossing, Eulerian and Lagrangian measurements become equivalent. For the range of conditions we test, we find that our buoy behaves in a Lagrangian manner, and our experimental observations compare extremely well with predictions made using second-order theory. Generally, Eulerian and Lagrangian measurements of crest height are not significantly different for all degrees of directional spreading and crossing. However, second-order bound-wave energy is redistributed from super-harmonics in Eulerian measurements to sub-harmonics in Lagrangian measurement, which affects the ‘apparent’ steepness inferred from time histories and poses a potential issue for wave buoys that measure acceleration.@en

Periodic water waves generate Stokes drift as manifest from the orbits of Lagrangian particles not fully closing. Stokes drift can contribute to the transport of floating marine litter, including plastic. Previously, marine litter objects have been considered to be perfect Lagrangian tracers, travelling with the Stokes drift of the waves. However, floating marine litter objects have large ranges of sizes and densities, which potentially result in different rates of transport by waves due to the non-Lagrangian behaviour of the objects. Through a combination of theory and experiments for idealised spherical objects in deep-water waves, we show that different objects are transported at different rates depending on their size and density, and that larger buoyant objects can have increased drift compared with Lagrangian tracers. We show that the mechanism for the increased drift observed in our experiments comprises the variable submergence and the corresponding dynamic buoyancy force components in a direction perpendicular to the local water surface. This leads to an amplification of the drift of these objects compared to the Stokes drift when averaged over the wave cycle. Using an expansion in wave steepness, we derive a closed-form approximation for this increased drift, which can be included in ocean-scale models of marine litter transport.@en

Ocean wave breaking is a difficult-to-model oceanographic process, which has implications for extreme wave statistics, the dissipation of wave energy, and air–sea interaction. Numerical methods capable of reliably simulating real-world directionally spread breaking waves are useful for investigating the physics of wave breaking and for the design of offshore structures and floating bodies. Smoothed particle hydrodynamics is capable of modelling highly steep and overturning free surfaces, which makes it a promising method for simulating breaking waves. This paper investigates the effect of smoothing length on simulated wave breaking in both following and crossing seas. To do so, we reproduce numerically the experiments of highly directionally spread breaking waves in McAllister et al. (J Fluid Mech 860:767–786, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2018.886) using a range of normalised smoothing lengths: h/ dp= 1.4 , 1.7, 2.0, 2.3, with h smoothing length and dp particle spacing. The smallest smoothing length we use appears to adversely affect the fidelity of the simulated surface elevation, so that the tallest wave crest observed in experiments is not fully reproduced (coefficient of determination r2≈ 0.7). For smoothing lengths h/ dp= 1.7 , 2.0, and 2.3, the experiments are well reproduced (r2≥ 0.88); in these simulations smoothing length predominantly affects the spatial extent and duration of breaking. Qualitative and quantitative comparison of our simulations shows that values of h/ dp in the range 1.7 - 2 best reproduce the wave breaking phenomena observed in experiments.@en

Axisymmetric standing waves occur across a wide range of free surface flows. When these waves reach a critical height (steepness), wave breaking and jet formation occur. For travelling surface gravity waves, wave breaking is generally considered to limit wave height and reversible wave motion. In the ocean, the behaviour of directionally spread waves lies between the limits of purely travelling (two dimensions) and axisymmetric (three dimensions). Hence, understanding wave breaking and jet formation on axisymmetric surface gravity waves is an important step in understanding extreme and breaking waves in the ocean. We examine an example of axisymmetric wave breaking and jet formation colloquially known as the 'spike wave', created in the FloWave circular wave tank at the University of Edinburgh, UK. We generate this spike wave with maximum crest amplitudes of 0.15-6.0 m (0.024-0.98 when made non-dimensional by characteristic radius), with wave breaking occurring for crest amplitudes greater than 1.0 m (0.16 non-dimensionalised). Unlike two-dimensional travelling waves, wave breaking does not limit maximum crest amplitude, and our measurements approximately follow the jet height scaling proposed by Ghabache et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 761, 2014, pp. 206-219) for cavity collapse. The spike wave is predominantly created by linear dispersive focusing. A trough forms, then collapses producing a jet, which is sensitive to the trough's shape. The evolution of the jets that form in our experiments is predicted well by the hyperbolic jet model proposed by Longuet-Higgins (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 127, 1983, pp. 103-121), previously applied to jets forming on bubbles.@en

Freak or rogue waves are so called because of their unexpectedly large size relative to the population of smaller waves in which they occur. The 25.6 m high Draupner wave, observed in a sea state with a significant wave height of 12 m, was one of the first confirmed field measurements of a freak wave. The physical mechanisms that give rise to freak waves such as the Draupner wave are still contentious. Through physical experiments carried out in a circular wave tank, we attempt to recreate the freak wave measured at the Draupner platform and gain an understanding of the directional conditions capable of supporting such a large and steep wave. Herein, we recreate the full scaled crest amplitude and profile of the Draupner wave, including bound set-up. We find that the onset and type of wave breaking play a significant role and differ significantly for crossing and non-crossing waves. Crucially, breaking becomes less crest-amplitude limiting for sufficiently large crossing angles and involves the formation of near-vertical jets. In our experiments, we were only able to reproduce the scaled crest and total wave height of the wave measured at the Draupner platform for conditions where two wave systems cross at a large angle.@en

Freak or rogue waves are so called because of their unexpectedly large size relative to the population of smaller waves in which they occur. The 25.6 m high Draupner wave, observed in a sea state with a significant wave height of 12 m, was one of the first confirmed field measurements of a freak wave. The physical mechanisms that give rise to freak waves such as the Draupner wave are still contentious. Through physical experiments carried out in a circular wave tank, we attempt to recreate the freak wave measured at the Draupner platform and gain an understanding of the directional conditions capable of supporting such a large and steep wave. Herein, we recreate the full scaled crest amplitude and profile of the Draupner wave, including bound set-up. We find that the onset and type of wave breaking play a significant role and differ significantly for crossing and non-crossing waves. Crucially, breaking becomes less crest-amplitude limiting for sufficiently large crossing angles and involves the formation of near-vertical jets. In our experiments, we were only able to reproduce the scaled crest and total wave height of the wave measured at the Draupner platform for conditions where two wave systems cross at a large angle.@en

For sufficiently directionally spread surface gravity wave groups, the set-down of the wave-averaged free surface, first described by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (J. Fluid Mech. vol. 13, 1962, pp. 481-504), can turn into a set-up. Using a multiple-scale expansion for two crossing wave groups, we examine the structure and magnitude of this wave-averaged set-up, which is part of a crossing wave pattern that behaves as a modulated partial standing wave: in space, it consists of a rapidly varying standing-wave pattern slowly modulated by the product of the envelopes of the two groups; in time, it grows and decays on the slow time scale associated with the translation of the groups. Whether this crossing wave pattern actually enhances the surface elevation at the point of focus depends on the phases of the linear wave groups, unlike the set-down, which is always negative and inherits the spatial structure of the underlying envelope(s). We present detailed laboratory measurements of the wave-averaged free surface, examining both single wave groups, varying the degree of spreading from small to very large, and the interaction between two wave groups, varying both the degree of spreading and the crossing angle between the groups. In both cases, we find good agreement between the experiments, our simple expressions for the set-down and set-up, and existing second-order theory based on the component-by-component interaction of individual waves with different frequencies and directions. We predict and observe a set-up for wave groups with a Gaussian angular amplitude distribution with standard deviations of above ( for energy spectra), which is relatively large for realistic sea states, and for crossing sea states with angles of separation of and above, which are known to occur in the ocean.@en

Wave-following buoys are used to provide measurements of free surface elevation across the oceans. The measurements they produce are widely used to derive wave-averaged parameters such as significant wave height and peak period, alongside wave-by-wave statistics such as crest height distributions. Particularly concerning the measurement of extreme wave crests, these measurements are often perceived to be less accurate. We directly assess this through a side-by-side laboratory comparison of measurements made using Eulerian wave gauges and model wave-following buoys for randomly generated directionally spread irregular waves representative of extreme conditions on deep water. This study builds on the recent work of McAllister and van den Bremer (2019, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-19-0170.1), in which buoy measurements of steep directionally spread focused waves groups were considered. Our experiments confirm that the motion of a wave-following buoy should not significantly affect the measured wave crest statistics or spectral parameters and that the discrepancies observed for in situ buoy data are most likely a result of filtering. This filtering occurs when accelerations that are measured by the sensors within a buoy are converted to displacements. We present an approximate means of correcting the resulting measured crest height distributions, which is shown to be effective using our experimental data.@en

Freak waves, abnormally large waves, that occur in the open-ocean can cause significant damage to offshore structures and vessels. In this paper, we attempt to numerically reproduce the experiments of McAllister et al., (2019, J. Fluid Mech. [1]), to investigate the potential properties of the Draupner freak wave [2] in more detail. We use a Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method to solve the full-3D Navier-Stokes equations. This Lagrangian method is able to recreate wave breaking, and has the potential to fully reproduce these experiments with the aim of providing further insight into properties of the waves created such as their kinematics and geometry. We compare time histories of water surface elevation produced numerically using four different particle sizes with experimentally-obtained data. We find good agreement in the time domain, with r2 (coefficient of determination) values between experimental and numerical data of over 0.94 the error in maximum wave height was less than 5 % for the finest particle size (over 100 million particles). We also numerically reproduce wave breaking observed in the experiments, where jet formation and breaking phenomena are qualitatively similar in appearance.@en

Freak waves, abnormally large waves, that occur in the open-ocean can cause significant damage to offshore structures and vessels. In this paper, we attempt to numerically reproduce the experiments of McAllister et al., (2019, J. Fluid Mech. [1]), to investigate the potential properties of the Draupner freak wave [2] in more detail. We use a Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method to solve the full-3D Navier-Stokes equations. This Lagrangian method is able to recreate wave breaking, and has the potential to fully reproduce these experiments with the aim of providing further insight into properties of the waves created such as their kinematics and geometry. We compare time histories of water surface elevation produced numerically using four different particle sizes with experimentally-obtained data. We find good agreement in the time domain, with r2 (coefficient of determination) values between experimental and numerical data of over 0.94 the error in maximum wave height was less than 5 % for the finest particle size (over 100 million particles). We also numerically reproduce wave breaking observed in the experiments, where jet formation and breaking phenomena are qualitatively similar in appearance.@en

High wind speeds generated during hurricanes result in the formation of extreme waves. Extreme waves by nature are steep meaning that linear wave theory alone is insufficient in understanding and predicting their occurrence. The complex, highly transient nature of the direction of wind and hence of waves generated during hurricanes affects this nonlinear behavior. Herein, we examine how this directionality can affect the second-order nonlinearity of extreme waves generated during hurricanes. This is achieved through both deterministic calculations and experiments based on the observations of Young (2006, "Directional Spectra of Hurricane Wind Waves," J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 111(C8), epub). Our calculations show that interactions between the tail and peak of the spectrum can become significant when they travel in different directions, resulting in second-order difference components that exist in the linear range of frequencies. These calculations are generally supported by experimental observations, but we note the difficulty of generating and focusing the high-frequency tail of the spectrum experimentally. Bound second-order difference components or subharmonics typically exist as low frequency infra-gravity waves. Components that exist in the linear range of frequencies may be missed by conventional methods of processing field data where low-pass filtering is used and hence overlooked. In this note, we show that in idealized directional spreading conditions representative of a hurricane, failing to account for second-order difference components may lead to underestimation of extreme wave height.@en

High wind speeds generated during hurricanes result in the formation of extreme waves. Extreme waves by nature are steep meaning that linear wave theory alone is insufficient in understanding and predicting their occurrence. The complex, highly transient nature of the direction of wind and hence of waves generated during hurricanes affects this nonlinear behavior. Herein, we examine how this directionality can affect the second-order nonlinearity of extreme waves generated during hurricanes. This is achieved through both deterministic calculations and experiments based on the observations of Young (2006, "Directional Spectra of Hurricane Wind Waves," J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 111(C8), epub). Our calculations show that interactions between the tail and peak of the spectrum can become significant when they travel in different directions, resulting in second-order difference components that exist in the linear range of frequencies. These calculations are generally supported by experimental observations, but we note the difficulty of generating and focusing the high-frequency tail of the spectrum experimentally. Bound second-order difference components or subharmonics typically exist as low frequency infra-gravity waves. Components that exist in the linear range of frequencies may be missed by conventional methods of processing field data where low-pass filtering is used and hence overlooked. In this note, we show that in idealized directional spreading conditions representative of a hurricane, failing to account for second-order difference components may lead to underestimation of extreme wave height.@en