Time-resolved planar particle image velocimetry was used to analyse the structuring of a turbulent boundary layer into uniform momentum zones (UMZs). The instantaneous peak-detection method employed by Adrian et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 422, 2000, pp. 1-54) and de Silva et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 786, 2016, pp. 309-331) is extended to account for temporal coherence of UMZs. The resulting number of zones detected appears to follow a normal distribution at any given instant. However, the extreme cases in which the number of zones is either very high or very low, are shown to be linked with two distinct flow states. A higher than average number of zones is associated with a large-scale event in the log region which creates increased small-scale activity within that region. Conversely, a low number of zones corresponds to a large-scale event in the log region and decreased turbulent activity away from the wall. The residence times, within the measurement plane, of zones belonging to the latter scenario are shown to be on average four times larger than those of zones present during higher than average zone structuring states. For both cases, greater residence times are observed for zones of higher momentum that are generally closer to the free stream.

A test case for pressure field reconstruction from particle image velocimetry (PIV) and Lagrangian particle tracking (LPT) has been developed by constructing a simulated experiment from a zonal detached eddy simulation for an axisymmetric base flow at Mach 0.7. The test case comprises sequences of four subsequent particle images (representing multi-pulse data) as well as continuous time-resolved data which can realistically only be obtained for low-speed flows. Particle images were processed using tomographic PIV processing as well as the LPT algorithm ‘Shake-The-Box’ (STB). Multiple pressure field reconstruction techniques have subsequently been applied to the PIV results (Eulerian approach, iterative least-square pseudo-tracking, Taylor’s hypothesis approach, and instantaneous Vortex-in-Cell) and LPT results (FlowFit, Vortex-in-Cell-plus, Voronoi-based pressure evaluation, and iterative least-square pseudo-tracking). All methods were able to reconstruct the main features of the instantaneous pressure fields, including methods that reconstruct pressure from a single PIV velocity snapshot. Highly accurate reconstructed pressure fields could be obtained using LPT approaches in combination with more advanced techniques. In general, the use of longer series of time-resolved input data, when available, allows more accurate pressure field reconstruction. Noise in the input data typically reduces the accuracy of the reconstructed pressure fields, but none of the techniques proved to be critically sensitive to the amount of noise added in the present test case.

A test case for PIV-based pressure evaluation techniques has been developed by constructing a simulated experiment from a ZDES simulation for an axisymmetric base flow at Mach 0.7. The test case comprises sequences of four subsequent particle images (representing multi-pulse data) as well as continuous time-resolved data. Particle images were processed using tomographic PIV processing as well as the PTV algorithm ‘Shake-The-Box’. Multiple pressure reconstruction techniques have subsequently been applied to the PIV results (Eulerian approach, iterative least-square pseudo-tracking, Taylor’s hypothesis approach, instantaneous Vortex-in-Cell) and PTV results (FlowFit, Vortex-in-Cell-plus, Voronoi-based pressure evaluation and iterative least-square pseudo-tracking). All methods were able to reconstruct the main features of the instantaneous pressure fields, including methods that reconstruct pressure from a single PIV velocity snapshot. Highly accurate pressure field reconstructions could be obtained by using PTV approaches in combination with more advanced techniques. In general, the use of longer series of time-resolved input data, when available, allows more accurate pressure field reconstruction. Noise in the input data typically reduces the accuracy of the reconstructed pressure fields, but none of the techniques was found to be critically sensitive to the amount of noise added in the present test case

Particle image velocimetry measurements and simultaneous force measurements have been performed on the DelFly II flapping-wing MAV, to investigate the flow-field behavior and the aerodynamic forces generated. For flapping wing motion it is expected that both the clap and peel mechanism and the occurrence of a leading edge vortex during the translational phase play an important role in unsteady lift generation. Furthermore, the flexibility of the wing foil is also considered of primary relevance. The PIV analysis shows a strong influx between the wings during the peel but no downward expelling jet during the clap. The force measurements reveal that the peel, oppositely to the clap, contributes significantly to the lift. The PIV visualization suggests the occurrence of a leading edge vortex during the first half of the in- and outstroke, which is supported by a simultaneous augmentation in lift. The early generation of a leading edge vortex during the flex cannot be assessed from the PIV images due to optical obstruction, but is likely to appear since the wing flexing is accompanied with a large increase in lift.