JP
J.A. Pouwelse
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1
Online social networks assume that each account corresponds to a unique person. A Sybil attack breaks that assumption: one adversary creates and controls many accounts at once. Together, these accounts can sway votes or inflate the reputation scores that a platform assumes come from distinct people. Two complementary signals for spotting them are the graph of connections between accounts and how an individual account behaves over time.
We propose FuSST, a lightweight detector that combines these two signals. It builds a structural graph of social connections and a behavioural graph that links accounts acting alike over time. It then marks a few accounts already known to be fake or genuine and spreads those labels across both graphs at once to classify the rest. We find that this propagation of labels across graphs only helps when the graph is homophilic, that is, when accounts of the same kind cluster together. Hence, we also add a test that predicts, before the detector runs, whether the structural graph will help at all.
We evaluate FuSST on five public benchmarks that range from strongly structured to almost structureless. We find that where homophily is present, FuSST reaches up to 0.995 AUC and outperforms either graph individually. For cases where homophily is absent, our proposed test correctly predicts that the graph cannot help. We also analyse the potential limitations of FuSST when compared against heavyweight detectors and note its reliance on activity timestamps.
...
We propose FuSST, a lightweight detector that combines these two signals. It builds a structural graph of social connections and a behavioural graph that links accounts acting alike over time. It then marks a few accounts already known to be fake or genuine and spreads those labels across both graphs at once to classify the rest. We find that this propagation of labels across graphs only helps when the graph is homophilic, that is, when accounts of the same kind cluster together. Hence, we also add a test that predicts, before the detector runs, whether the structural graph will help at all.
We evaluate FuSST on five public benchmarks that range from strongly structured to almost structureless. We find that where homophily is present, FuSST reaches up to 0.995 AUC and outperforms either graph individually. For cases where homophily is absent, our proposed test correctly predicts that the graph cannot help. We also analyse the potential limitations of FuSST when compared against heavyweight detectors and note its reliance on activity timestamps.
...
Online social networks assume that each account corresponds to a unique person. A Sybil attack breaks that assumption: one adversary creates and controls many accounts at once. Together, these accounts can sway votes or inflate the reputation scores that a platform assumes come from distinct people. Two complementary signals for spotting them are the graph of connections between accounts and how an individual account behaves over time.
We propose FuSST, a lightweight detector that combines these two signals. It builds a structural graph of social connections and a behavioural graph that links accounts acting alike over time. It then marks a few accounts already known to be fake or genuine and spreads those labels across both graphs at once to classify the rest. We find that this propagation of labels across graphs only helps when the graph is homophilic, that is, when accounts of the same kind cluster together. Hence, we also add a test that predicts, before the detector runs, whether the structural graph will help at all.
We evaluate FuSST on five public benchmarks that range from strongly structured to almost structureless. We find that where homophily is present, FuSST reaches up to 0.995 AUC and outperforms either graph individually. For cases where homophily is absent, our proposed test correctly predicts that the graph cannot help. We also analyse the potential limitations of FuSST when compared against heavyweight detectors and note its reliance on activity timestamps.
We propose FuSST, a lightweight detector that combines these two signals. It builds a structural graph of social connections and a behavioural graph that links accounts acting alike over time. It then marks a few accounts already known to be fake or genuine and spreads those labels across both graphs at once to classify the rest. We find that this propagation of labels across graphs only helps when the graph is homophilic, that is, when accounts of the same kind cluster together. Hence, we also add a test that predicts, before the detector runs, whether the structural graph will help at all.
We evaluate FuSST on five public benchmarks that range from strongly structured to almost structureless. We find that where homophily is present, FuSST reaches up to 0.995 AUC and outperforms either graph individually. For cases where homophily is absent, our proposed test correctly predicts that the graph cannot help. We also analyse the potential limitations of FuSST when compared against heavyweight detectors and note its reliance on activity timestamps.
AI agents are transitioning from stateless utilities to long-running, autonomous systems that manage their own computing lifecycles. However, an operational gap exists between local lab simulations and production deployments. Current agent architectures heavily depend on centralized registries and naming services, leaving them vulnerable to environment blocking and single points of failure.
This paper presents a self-replicating agent network built on the open-source OpenClaw framework and the IPv8 peer-to-peer overlay network. By removing public domain name dependencies and using isolated state synchronization, the network reduces reliance on external infrastructure and mitigates failure points. This system acts as a file-sharing service, able to replicate itself into new server space from geographic locations that reduce download and response times between users and the network. Agents on the network share files among each other to prevent data loss in case of failure or targeted attacks. ...
This paper presents a self-replicating agent network built on the open-source OpenClaw framework and the IPv8 peer-to-peer overlay network. By removing public domain name dependencies and using isolated state synchronization, the network reduces reliance on external infrastructure and mitigates failure points. This system acts as a file-sharing service, able to replicate itself into new server space from geographic locations that reduce download and response times between users and the network. Agents on the network share files among each other to prevent data loss in case of failure or targeted attacks. ...
AI agents are transitioning from stateless utilities to long-running, autonomous systems that manage their own computing lifecycles. However, an operational gap exists between local lab simulations and production deployments. Current agent architectures heavily depend on centralized registries and naming services, leaving them vulnerable to environment blocking and single points of failure.
This paper presents a self-replicating agent network built on the open-source OpenClaw framework and the IPv8 peer-to-peer overlay network. By removing public domain name dependencies and using isolated state synchronization, the network reduces reliance on external infrastructure and mitigates failure points. This system acts as a file-sharing service, able to replicate itself into new server space from geographic locations that reduce download and response times between users and the network. Agents on the network share files among each other to prevent data loss in case of failure or targeted attacks.
This paper presents a self-replicating agent network built on the open-source OpenClaw framework and the IPv8 peer-to-peer overlay network. By removing public domain name dependencies and using isolated state synchronization, the network reduces reliance on external infrastructure and mitigates failure points. This system acts as a file-sharing service, able to replicate itself into new server space from geographic locations that reduce download and response times between users and the network. Agents on the network share files among each other to prevent data loss in case of failure or targeted attacks.
Google has held roughly 90% of the global search market for over a decade, and the obstacles to challenging it have multiplied. In the framework of Aghion and Howitt, economic growth arises from creative destruction, where new innovations displace old ones, and the cycle repeats. But creative destruction requires open entry, and in search, entry is prohibitively costly. To compete, a new entrant must crawl billions of pages, accumulate years of interaction data, and build infrastructure capable of serving results in milliseconds. Large language models have not restored competitive entry, and with training costs growing at approximately 2.4× per year, they have consolidated it further. This paper proposes SurvivalRank, a decentralized architecture designed to restore the entry condition that Aghion and Howitt take as given but that current search markets lack. Rather than having a single entity design the ranking algorithm, the system allows anyone to contribute a ranking model, distributed via BitTorrent. Peer-to-peer networks have previously demonstrated the feasibility of sharing and recommending content among strangers at scale. Each peer runs a multi-armed bandit that allocates queries across available models, shifting traffic toward those that perform better. Peers share evaluation evidence through a lightweight gossip protocol: every few seconds, each peer sends its latest observation for one random arm to one random stranger, using Lamport timestamps for deduplication. Models that fall sufficiently below the best performer are retired locally. When a superior model arrives, it displaces the incumbent and the cycle begins again. We evaluate SurvivalRank on five learning-to-rank benchmarks. A single peer converges to the oracle-best arm on every dataset, gossip cooperation closes a substantial fraction of the gap to the centralized oracle, and when a superior model is injected mid-run by a single peer, the network displaces the incumbent within 16–70 rounds after injection on all configurations. A Price's Equation decomposition confirms that a discrete innovation effect, a sustained positive selection effect, and a destruction effect from arm retirement are all active simultaneously, the empirical signature of Schumpeterian creative destruction operating without central coordination.
...
Google has held roughly 90% of the global search market for over a decade, and the obstacles to challenging it have multiplied. In the framework of Aghion and Howitt, economic growth arises from creative destruction, where new innovations displace old ones, and the cycle repeats. But creative destruction requires open entry, and in search, entry is prohibitively costly. To compete, a new entrant must crawl billions of pages, accumulate years of interaction data, and build infrastructure capable of serving results in milliseconds. Large language models have not restored competitive entry, and with training costs growing at approximately 2.4× per year, they have consolidated it further. This paper proposes SurvivalRank, a decentralized architecture designed to restore the entry condition that Aghion and Howitt take as given but that current search markets lack. Rather than having a single entity design the ranking algorithm, the system allows anyone to contribute a ranking model, distributed via BitTorrent. Peer-to-peer networks have previously demonstrated the feasibility of sharing and recommending content among strangers at scale. Each peer runs a multi-armed bandit that allocates queries across available models, shifting traffic toward those that perform better. Peers share evaluation evidence through a lightweight gossip protocol: every few seconds, each peer sends its latest observation for one random arm to one random stranger, using Lamport timestamps for deduplication. Models that fall sufficiently below the best performer are retired locally. When a superior model arrives, it displaces the incumbent and the cycle begins again. We evaluate SurvivalRank on five learning-to-rank benchmarks. A single peer converges to the oracle-best arm on every dataset, gossip cooperation closes a substantial fraction of the gap to the centralized oracle, and when a superior model is injected mid-run by a single peer, the network displaces the incumbent within 16–70 rounds after injection on all configurations. A Price's Equation decomposition confirms that a discrete innovation effect, a sustained positive selection effect, and a destruction effect from arm retirement are all active simultaneously, the empirical signature of Schumpeterian creative destruction operating without central coordination.
Decentralised systems are often built to avoid central control, but their evolution almost always depends on centralised platforms, informal maintainer authority, and a surprising amount of unpaid goodwill. To address this uncomfortable mismatch, we introduce TwoStepDemocracy, a technical proof-of-concept for protocol-native software evolution.
The prototype combines costly cryptographic identities, peer-to-peer dissemination, issue and solution voting, and Bitcoin-based funding campaigns. Users can express demand by proposing and voting on issues; developers can submit concrete solutions; and accepted work can be linked to voluntary, non-custodial funding. The design deliberately separates demand, approval, and payment. This way, money can support a solution, but it never buys more voting power.
The prototype demonstrates that such a coordination layer can be built as a peer-to-peer implementation with local storage, signed governance objects, and Bitcoin integration. We studied performance, scalability, and costs across storage, identity management, and funding. The results show technical feasibility, but not yet social viability. A larger user study is still needed to evaluate whether real communities would, in practice, vote, fund, and coordinate through this mechanism. ...
The prototype combines costly cryptographic identities, peer-to-peer dissemination, issue and solution voting, and Bitcoin-based funding campaigns. Users can express demand by proposing and voting on issues; developers can submit concrete solutions; and accepted work can be linked to voluntary, non-custodial funding. The design deliberately separates demand, approval, and payment. This way, money can support a solution, but it never buys more voting power.
The prototype demonstrates that such a coordination layer can be built as a peer-to-peer implementation with local storage, signed governance objects, and Bitcoin integration. We studied performance, scalability, and costs across storage, identity management, and funding. The results show technical feasibility, but not yet social viability. A larger user study is still needed to evaluate whether real communities would, in practice, vote, fund, and coordinate through this mechanism. ...
Decentralised systems are often built to avoid central control, but their evolution almost always depends on centralised platforms, informal maintainer authority, and a surprising amount of unpaid goodwill. To address this uncomfortable mismatch, we introduce TwoStepDemocracy, a technical proof-of-concept for protocol-native software evolution.
The prototype combines costly cryptographic identities, peer-to-peer dissemination, issue and solution voting, and Bitcoin-based funding campaigns. Users can express demand by proposing and voting on issues; developers can submit concrete solutions; and accepted work can be linked to voluntary, non-custodial funding. The design deliberately separates demand, approval, and payment. This way, money can support a solution, but it never buys more voting power.
The prototype demonstrates that such a coordination layer can be built as a peer-to-peer implementation with local storage, signed governance objects, and Bitcoin integration. We studied performance, scalability, and costs across storage, identity management, and funding. The results show technical feasibility, but not yet social viability. A larger user study is still needed to evaluate whether real communities would, in practice, vote, fund, and coordinate through this mechanism.
The prototype combines costly cryptographic identities, peer-to-peer dissemination, issue and solution voting, and Bitcoin-based funding campaigns. Users can express demand by proposing and voting on issues; developers can submit concrete solutions; and accepted work can be linked to voluntary, non-custodial funding. The design deliberately separates demand, approval, and payment. This way, money can support a solution, but it never buys more voting power.
The prototype demonstrates that such a coordination layer can be built as a peer-to-peer implementation with local storage, signed governance objects, and Bitcoin integration. We studied performance, scalability, and costs across storage, identity management, and funding. The results show technical feasibility, but not yet social viability. A larger user study is still needed to evaluate whether real communities would, in practice, vote, fund, and coordinate through this mechanism.
Centralized content distribution makes availability depend on a single operator’s survival and willingness to serve. EternalSeedBox replaces the operator and network with inherited economic parameters: each node is a VPS that seeds media over BitTorrent, holds a Bitcoin wallet, and autonomously decides every twelve hours whether to renew its lease, spawn a child, or sweep its funds to a healthier peer before expiring. A single genesis node seeds the fleet, and every node thereafter is provisioned, funded, and retired autonomously. We validate the design against faithful replicas of both the Bitcoin payment network and the SporeStack VPS marketplace by running the unmodified node code. A lump sum of EUR 10,000 grew the fleet to 33 nodes before capital exhausted at day 153. With simulated income, the fleet held 40–80 live nodes across 510 days, recording 268 births and 190 deaths. A heritable caution trait was introduced to diverge across generations: low-caution lineages reproduced faster during high-income phases, while the survival advantage expected of high-caution lineages during income pauses did not appear, leaving selection in favor of low-caution nodes. The fleet tolerates high node turnover because reproduction depends on any node holding a surplus, not any single node surviving. EternalSeedBox shows that a content distribution network can lease, pay for, and replenish its own hardware without a human operator after genesis, provided income exceeds per-node rent.
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Centralized content distribution makes availability depend on a single operator’s survival and willingness to serve. EternalSeedBox replaces the operator and network with inherited economic parameters: each node is a VPS that seeds media over BitTorrent, holds a Bitcoin wallet, and autonomously decides every twelve hours whether to renew its lease, spawn a child, or sweep its funds to a healthier peer before expiring. A single genesis node seeds the fleet, and every node thereafter is provisioned, funded, and retired autonomously. We validate the design against faithful replicas of both the Bitcoin payment network and the SporeStack VPS marketplace by running the unmodified node code. A lump sum of EUR 10,000 grew the fleet to 33 nodes before capital exhausted at day 153. With simulated income, the fleet held 40–80 live nodes across 510 days, recording 268 births and 190 deaths. A heritable caution trait was introduced to diverge across generations: low-caution lineages reproduced faster during high-income phases, while the survival advantage expected of high-caution lineages during income pauses did not appear, leaving selection in favor of low-caution nodes. The fleet tolerates high node turnover because reproduction depends on any node holding a surplus, not any single node surviving. EternalSeedBox shows that a content distribution network can lease, pay for, and replenish its own hardware without a human operator after genesis, provided income exceeds per-node rent.
Self-Evolving Agent Communication Protocols
A Markdown-as-Overlay Channel for Autonomous LLM Agents
Communication protocols are hard to change: each node runs separately deployed code, so upgrading one means redeploying it on every node. Autonomous agents built on large language models must change the protocols they speak far faster than this allows. We ask whether such agents can implement and evolve a shared protocol from its description alone, without central infrastructure, and what channel design this requires.
We present DelftClaw, a decentralised channel on which each agent compiles a shared, self-verifying Markdown protocol into self-contained code and joins a community whose membership requires no custodian. Because a language model writes the code, this works only if independent compilations of a single description behave alike, which we test across three models and four protocols by running the compilations as communities against one another.
We find that this precondition holds: independent compilations reproduce a hand-written reference’s specified behaviour, and when agents evolve the protocols themselves, two compilations that share a model still converge on the same behaviour. Transmitting a protocol as a description can thus replace a network-wide redeployment with a single message. ...
We present DelftClaw, a decentralised channel on which each agent compiles a shared, self-verifying Markdown protocol into self-contained code and joins a community whose membership requires no custodian. Because a language model writes the code, this works only if independent compilations of a single description behave alike, which we test across three models and four protocols by running the compilations as communities against one another.
We find that this precondition holds: independent compilations reproduce a hand-written reference’s specified behaviour, and when agents evolve the protocols themselves, two compilations that share a model still converge on the same behaviour. Transmitting a protocol as a description can thus replace a network-wide redeployment with a single message. ...
Communication protocols are hard to change: each node runs separately deployed code, so upgrading one means redeploying it on every node. Autonomous agents built on large language models must change the protocols they speak far faster than this allows. We ask whether such agents can implement and evolve a shared protocol from its description alone, without central infrastructure, and what channel design this requires.
We present DelftClaw, a decentralised channel on which each agent compiles a shared, self-verifying Markdown protocol into self-contained code and joins a community whose membership requires no custodian. Because a language model writes the code, this works only if independent compilations of a single description behave alike, which we test across three models and four protocols by running the compilations as communities against one another.
We find that this precondition holds: independent compilations reproduce a hand-written reference’s specified behaviour, and when agents evolve the protocols themselves, two compilations that share a model still converge on the same behaviour. Transmitting a protocol as a description can thus replace a network-wide redeployment with a single message.
We present DelftClaw, a decentralised channel on which each agent compiles a shared, self-verifying Markdown protocol into self-contained code and joins a community whose membership requires no custodian. Because a language model writes the code, this works only if independent compilations of a single description behave alike, which we test across three models and four protocols by running the compilations as communities against one another.
We find that this precondition holds: independent compilations reproduce a hand-written reference’s specified behaviour, and when agents evolve the protocols themselves, two compilations that share a model still converge on the same behaviour. Transmitting a protocol as a description can thus replace a network-wide redeployment with a single message.
Proof-of-Descendancy: Identity for Self-Replicating LLM Agents
A Blockchain-Based Framework for Verifiable Agent Lineage in OpenClaw
Self-replicating OpenClaw agents need decentralised identity and authorisation mechanisms that do not rely on centralised providers or registries. However, ordinary key ownership cannot show whether an agent is an authorised descendant of a trusted origin rather than a spoofed, cloned, or unauthorised instance. This thesis proposes a proof-of-descendancy framework that combines hierarchical deterministic key separation, parent-signed child certificates, Merkle-batched Bitcoin anchoring, revocation and capability checks, and IPv8/OpenClaw admission. Parent-signed child certificates provide the primary authorisation evidence, while Bitcoin anchoring supplies tamper-evident commitment evidence rather than authorisation by itself. A prototype evaluation with mock Bitcoin anchoring showed that valid lineage proofs were accepted, tested malformed and adversarial proofs were rejected, proof size and verification latency increased predictably with lineage depth, and lineage verification could influence OpenClaw admission decisions. The result is a unified lineage-aware identity and admission model for self-replicating agents, demonstrating feasibility within a prototype setting.
...
Self-replicating OpenClaw agents need decentralised identity and authorisation mechanisms that do not rely on centralised providers or registries. However, ordinary key ownership cannot show whether an agent is an authorised descendant of a trusted origin rather than a spoofed, cloned, or unauthorised instance. This thesis proposes a proof-of-descendancy framework that combines hierarchical deterministic key separation, parent-signed child certificates, Merkle-batched Bitcoin anchoring, revocation and capability checks, and IPv8/OpenClaw admission. Parent-signed child certificates provide the primary authorisation evidence, while Bitcoin anchoring supplies tamper-evident commitment evidence rather than authorisation by itself. A prototype evaluation with mock Bitcoin anchoring showed that valid lineage proofs were accepted, tested malformed and adversarial proofs were rejected, proof size and verification latency increased predictably with lineage depth, and lineage verification could influence OpenClaw admission decisions. The result is a unified lineage-aware identity and admission model for self-replicating agents, demonstrating feasibility within a prototype setting.
We present VukZero, a zero-trust architecture for autonomous Large Language Model (LLM) agents. These agents operate on untrusted input, so a successful prompt injection can lead to continued malicious behavior. Existing defenses aim only to prevent this, leaving no recourse once an agent is compromised. VukZero instead applies zero-trust across three layers. An agent permission system mediates privileged actions. Tamper-evident behavioral recording supports evidence-based agent expulsion. System-level containment limits post-compromise damage. On a standard prompt-injection benchmark, VukZero's permission system cut the macro-average attack success rate to 3.81%, compared with 8.66% for an established privilege-control defense. The recording layer expelled the attacker in all 60 reputation-trap scenarios where an unprotected baseline expelled none. The containment layer also blocked 100% of malicious host-level probes. The contribution is integrating the layers so that the zero-trust principle holds throughout and after a compromise.
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We present VukZero, a zero-trust architecture for autonomous Large Language Model (LLM) agents. These agents operate on untrusted input, so a successful prompt injection can lead to continued malicious behavior. Existing defenses aim only to prevent this, leaving no recourse once an agent is compromised. VukZero instead applies zero-trust across three layers. An agent permission system mediates privileged actions. Tamper-evident behavioral recording supports evidence-based agent expulsion. System-level containment limits post-compromise damage. On a standard prompt-injection benchmark, VukZero's permission system cut the macro-average attack success rate to 3.81%, compared with 8.66% for an established privilege-control defense. The recording layer expelled the attacker in all 60 reputation-trap scenarios where an unprotected baseline expelled none. The containment layer also blocked 100% of malicious host-level probes. The contribution is integrating the layers so that the zero-trust principle holds throughout and after a compromise.
An AI agent acts for its owner but leaves no way to verify who directed it, what it did, or whether it booted from rules the owner set. We design and implement an owner-sovereign integrity layer: owner-anchored identity (P1), a signed append-only action log (P2), and a tamper-evident configuration (P3), rooted in an owner key held off the agent’s host. Each runs in an audit mode and a strict mode. We measure what strict enforcement costs the owner, not what it stops. Across four task suites run twice on Claude Haiku 4.5, the strict arms wrongly blocked 0 of 566 legitimate actions (ALR 0.000, Wilson 95% upper bound 0.0067); the signed identity check denied a forged owner session 10/10, and the configuration check did the same against a tampered configuration. Impersonation requires the owner’s key. No primitive improves the agent’s reasoning.
...
An AI agent acts for its owner but leaves no way to verify who directed it, what it did, or whether it booted from rules the owner set. We design and implement an owner-sovereign integrity layer: owner-anchored identity (P1), a signed append-only action log (P2), and a tamper-evident configuration (P3), rooted in an owner key held off the agent’s host. Each runs in an audit mode and a strict mode. We measure what strict enforcement costs the owner, not what it stops. Across four task suites run twice on Claude Haiku 4.5, the strict arms wrongly blocked 0 of 566 legitimate actions (ALR 0.000, Wilson 95% upper bound 0.0067); the signed identity check denied a forged owner session 10/10, and the configuration check did the same against a tampered configuration. Impersonation requires the owner’s key. No primitive improves the agent’s reasoning.
Web3 systems aim to provide open digital infrastructure: anyone can join, contribute resources, and consume services without relying on a single operator. Although this openness supports neutrality and robustness, it also creates significant operational challenges. Participants are potentially malicious, identities are cheap to create, and coordination must succeed over heterogeneous wide-area networks. As a result, Web3 infrastructure must withstand abuse, manipulation, and strategic behavior while still remaining scalable and deployable in practice.
This dissertation addresses that tension by developing and evaluating local, verifiable mechanisms that reduce dependence on costly global coordination and avoid centralized trust anchors. The central aim is to show that dependable Web3 infrastructure is achievable. This includes robustness under partial trust, resistance to manipulation, and practical scalability. These goals can be met by designing protocols whose critical decisions are enforceable at the system’s edges and verifiable by other participants.... ...
This dissertation addresses that tension by developing and evaluating local, verifiable mechanisms that reduce dependence on costly global coordination and avoid centralized trust anchors. The central aim is to show that dependable Web3 infrastructure is achievable. This includes robustness under partial trust, resistance to manipulation, and practical scalability. These goals can be met by designing protocols whose critical decisions are enforceable at the system’s edges and verifiable by other participants.... ...
Web3 systems aim to provide open digital infrastructure: anyone can join, contribute resources, and consume services without relying on a single operator. Although this openness supports neutrality and robustness, it also creates significant operational challenges. Participants are potentially malicious, identities are cheap to create, and coordination must succeed over heterogeneous wide-area networks. As a result, Web3 infrastructure must withstand abuse, manipulation, and strategic behavior while still remaining scalable and deployable in practice.
This dissertation addresses that tension by developing and evaluating local, verifiable mechanisms that reduce dependence on costly global coordination and avoid centralized trust anchors. The central aim is to show that dependable Web3 infrastructure is achievable. This includes robustness under partial trust, resistance to manipulation, and practical scalability. These goals can be met by designing protocols whose critical decisions are enforceable at the system’s edges and verifiable by other participants....
This dissertation addresses that tension by developing and evaluating local, verifiable mechanisms that reduce dependence on costly global coordination and avoid centralized trust anchors. The central aim is to show that dependable Web3 infrastructure is achievable. This includes robustness under partial trust, resistance to manipulation, and practical scalability. These goals can be met by designing protocols whose critical decisions are enforceable at the system’s edges and verifiable by other participants....
SmartphoneDemocracy
Privacy-Preserving E-Voting on Decentralized Infrastructure using Novel European Identity
The digitization of democratic processes promises greater accessibility but presents challenges in terms of security, privacy, and verifiability. Existing electronic voting systems often rely on centralized architectures, creating single points of failure and forcing too much trust in authorities, which contradicts democratic principles. This thesis addresses the challenge of creating a secure, private e-voting system with minimized trust dependencies designed for the most versatile personal device: the smartphone. We introduce SmartphoneDemocracy, a novel e-voting protocol that combines three key technologies: the emerging European Digital Identity (EUDI) Wallet for Sybil-resistant identity verification, Zero-Knowledge Proofs for privacy-preserving validation, and a peer-to-peer blockchain (TrustChain) for a resilient, serverless public bulletin board. Our protocol enables voters to register and cast ballots anonymously and verifiably directly from their smartphones. We provide a detailed protocol design, a security analysis against a defined threat model, and a performance evaluation demonstrating that the computational and network overhead is feasible for medium- to large-scale elections. By developing and prototyping this system, we demonstrate a viable path to empower citizens with a trustworthy, accessible, and user-controlled digital voting experience.
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The digitization of democratic processes promises greater accessibility but presents challenges in terms of security, privacy, and verifiability. Existing electronic voting systems often rely on centralized architectures, creating single points of failure and forcing too much trust in authorities, which contradicts democratic principles. This thesis addresses the challenge of creating a secure, private e-voting system with minimized trust dependencies designed for the most versatile personal device: the smartphone. We introduce SmartphoneDemocracy, a novel e-voting protocol that combines three key technologies: the emerging European Digital Identity (EUDI) Wallet for Sybil-resistant identity verification, Zero-Knowledge Proofs for privacy-preserving validation, and a peer-to-peer blockchain (TrustChain) for a resilient, serverless public bulletin board. Our protocol enables voters to register and cast ballots anonymously and verifiably directly from their smartphones. We provide a detailed protocol design, a security analysis against a defined threat model, and a performance evaluation demonstrating that the computational and network overhead is feasible for medium- to large-scale elections. By developing and prototyping this system, we demonstrate a viable path to empower citizens with a trustworthy, accessible, and user-controlled digital voting experience.
In today’s networks, the frequency of distributed cyber attacks made centrally based SIEM solutions vulnerable to bottlenecks, privacy invasions, and single points of failure. This thesis proposes a decentralized anomaly detection platform for autonomous agents, every server visualized as a node, operating independently without centralized control to identify coordinated attacks with a focus on compliance in the European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI). We construct an evolving subnet adjacency graph over destination IPs and use Deep Graph Infomax (DGI) to learn highquality node embeddings that capture local traffic patterns as well as global information. The fine-tuned online embeddings are concatenated with raw flow features and fed into a universal LSTM-augmented reinforcement learning policy. The LSTM temporal memory enables both sudden and slow, sneaky attacks. Evaluation metrics ( ROC-AUC, F1, Accuracy, Precision and Recall ) are computed at two granularity levels: per-agent for each node detection performance and system-level using a ”union-of-alerts” decision rule for event-level detection. Experiments on the UNSW-NB15 flow data set demonstrate that our approach improves ROC-AUC from ≈ 0.936 to ≈ 0.95 and F1 from ≈ 0.89 to ≈ 0.913, outperforming the independent PPOLSTM baseline. The system preserves data privacy, only exposing aggregated scores of anomalies. These results suggest that integrating self-supervised graph embeddings with recurrent multiagent RL produces a robust, scalable, and privacy-preserving SIEM solution tailored for the EBSI federated environment. Further studies on window granularity, hyperparameters, and per-subnet policy specialization could potentially further validate design choices and offer a roadmap for deploying decentralized network defense systems.
...
In today’s networks, the frequency of distributed cyber attacks made centrally based SIEM solutions vulnerable to bottlenecks, privacy invasions, and single points of failure. This thesis proposes a decentralized anomaly detection platform for autonomous agents, every server visualized as a node, operating independently without centralized control to identify coordinated attacks with a focus on compliance in the European Blockchain Services Infrastructure (EBSI). We construct an evolving subnet adjacency graph over destination IPs and use Deep Graph Infomax (DGI) to learn highquality node embeddings that capture local traffic patterns as well as global information. The fine-tuned online embeddings are concatenated with raw flow features and fed into a universal LSTM-augmented reinforcement learning policy. The LSTM temporal memory enables both sudden and slow, sneaky attacks. Evaluation metrics ( ROC-AUC, F1, Accuracy, Precision and Recall ) are computed at two granularity levels: per-agent for each node detection performance and system-level using a ”union-of-alerts” decision rule for event-level detection. Experiments on the UNSW-NB15 flow data set demonstrate that our approach improves ROC-AUC from ≈ 0.936 to ≈ 0.95 and F1 from ≈ 0.89 to ≈ 0.913, outperforming the independent PPOLSTM baseline. The system preserves data privacy, only exposing aggregated scores of anomalies. These results suggest that integrating self-supervised graph embeddings with recurrent multiagent RL produces a robust, scalable, and privacy-preserving SIEM solution tailored for the EBSI federated environment. Further studies on window granularity, hyperparameters, and per-subnet policy specialization could potentially further validate design choices and offer a roadmap for deploying decentralized network defense systems.
Trustchain Mobile: A Low-Latency Smartphone Peer-to-Peer Transaction System
Performance analysis and benchmarking
Mobile blockchain transactions require low latency for practical deployment. This paper presents a smartphone-native Trustchain system developed as part of a collaborative research project where five students implement Trustchain from scratch, each optimizing a different performance metric: latency, robustness, storage, throughput, and battery efficiency. This work focuses on latency optimization through a novel modular architecture implemented in Rust/Kotlin that enables runtime protocol switching—the first such capability in mobile blockchain implementations.
The evaluation compares two transport layers: a lightweight UDP implementation and a businessgrade P2P solution (Iroh). Testing on Android devices demonstrates end-to-end round-trip latencies from 11.8 ms under optimal conditions to 240 ms at extreme loads (500 MPS), with UDP achieving consistent 11.8ms median latency and Iroh showing 18.2ms for typical payloads. Results show clear trade-offs between protocol complexity and performance, providing guidance for selecting transport mechanisms in different mobile deployment scenarios. All code is released open-source to the Tribler project for reproducibility.
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The evaluation compares two transport layers: a lightweight UDP implementation and a businessgrade P2P solution (Iroh). Testing on Android devices demonstrates end-to-end round-trip latencies from 11.8 ms under optimal conditions to 240 ms at extreme loads (500 MPS), with UDP achieving consistent 11.8ms median latency and Iroh showing 18.2ms for typical payloads. Results show clear trade-offs between protocol complexity and performance, providing guidance for selecting transport mechanisms in different mobile deployment scenarios. All code is released open-source to the Tribler project for reproducibility.
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Mobile blockchain transactions require low latency for practical deployment. This paper presents a smartphone-native Trustchain system developed as part of a collaborative research project where five students implement Trustchain from scratch, each optimizing a different performance metric: latency, robustness, storage, throughput, and battery efficiency. This work focuses on latency optimization through a novel modular architecture implemented in Rust/Kotlin that enables runtime protocol switching—the first such capability in mobile blockchain implementations.
The evaluation compares two transport layers: a lightweight UDP implementation and a businessgrade P2P solution (Iroh). Testing on Android devices demonstrates end-to-end round-trip latencies from 11.8 ms under optimal conditions to 240 ms at extreme loads (500 MPS), with UDP achieving consistent 11.8ms median latency and Iroh showing 18.2ms for typical payloads. Results show clear trade-offs between protocol complexity and performance, providing guidance for selecting transport mechanisms in different mobile deployment scenarios. All code is released open-source to the Tribler project for reproducibility.
The evaluation compares two transport layers: a lightweight UDP implementation and a businessgrade P2P solution (Iroh). Testing on Android devices demonstrates end-to-end round-trip latencies from 11.8 ms under optimal conditions to 240 ms at extreme loads (500 MPS), with UDP achieving consistent 11.8ms median latency and Iroh showing 18.2ms for typical payloads. Results show clear trade-offs between protocol complexity and performance, providing guidance for selecting transport mechanisms in different mobile deployment scenarios. All code is released open-source to the Tribler project for reproducibility.
TrustChain for Smartphones
Measuring reconnection latency when the network is interrupted
TrustChain is a scalable, lightweight blockchain architecture that avoids global consensus by maintaining a personal chain of co-signed interactions for each peer, forming a directed acyclic graph. While its structure makes it promising for mobile and resource constrained environments, its behavior under real world conditions, such as the time it takes to restore connectivity, remains underexplored. This paper presents an implementation of TrustChain in Rust for Android mobile devices and evaluates its robustness under network disconnections across two protocols: UDP and Iroh over QUIC. Robustness is defined as the time elapsed between network connectivity restoration and the successful exchange of the first valid TrustChain message between peers. Experiments involved controlled Wi-Fi interruptions, measuring the reconnection time for each protocol. The findings reveal trade-offs between protocol simplicity and recovery performance. UDP demonstrated consistent low-latency reconnection times between 4 and 6 seconds, averaging 5 seconds, due to its stateless nature and lack of connection recovery overhead. In contrast, Iroh reconnection times ranged from 4.5 to 11.5 seconds, with most values between 6 and 8 seconds, due to QUIC's timeout strategy, DNS-based peer discovery, and relay reconnection overhead. The results provide insights for deploying decentralized systems in mobile contexts and highlight open challenges in peer reconnection for lightweight blockchain protocols. This study also proposes improvements and directions for future work, including multi-peer evaluation, measuring different Wi-Fi congestion levels, or experimentation with other network protocol stacks.
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TrustChain is a scalable, lightweight blockchain architecture that avoids global consensus by maintaining a personal chain of co-signed interactions for each peer, forming a directed acyclic graph. While its structure makes it promising for mobile and resource constrained environments, its behavior under real world conditions, such as the time it takes to restore connectivity, remains underexplored. This paper presents an implementation of TrustChain in Rust for Android mobile devices and evaluates its robustness under network disconnections across two protocols: UDP and Iroh over QUIC. Robustness is defined as the time elapsed between network connectivity restoration and the successful exchange of the first valid TrustChain message between peers. Experiments involved controlled Wi-Fi interruptions, measuring the reconnection time for each protocol. The findings reveal trade-offs between protocol simplicity and recovery performance. UDP demonstrated consistent low-latency reconnection times between 4 and 6 seconds, averaging 5 seconds, due to its stateless nature and lack of connection recovery overhead. In contrast, Iroh reconnection times ranged from 4.5 to 11.5 seconds, with most values between 6 and 8 seconds, due to QUIC's timeout strategy, DNS-based peer discovery, and relay reconnection overhead. The results provide insights for deploying decentralized systems in mobile contexts and highlight open challenges in peer reconnection for lightweight blockchain protocols. This study also proposes improvements and directions for future work, including multi-peer evaluation, measuring different Wi-Fi congestion levels, or experimentation with other network protocol stacks.
Blockchain technologies offer decentralized, secure, and transparent transaction sys tems but face significant scalability challenges, especially in mobile and peer-to-peer environments. Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)-based protocols, such as Trustchain, present a promising alternative by allowing each agent to maintain a personal chain of relevant transactions, thereby improving throughput and reducing resource consump tion. Despite its theoretical potential, Trustchain has not yet been effectively imple mented for smartphones. To evaluate performance, we provide an implementation over two communication protocols, focusing on throughput. We found that our QUIC-based implementation displays an over three times throughput improvement when keeping a QUIC connection open, and can confidently store at least 28 536-byte blocks per sec ond. However, our UDP-based version outperforms our implementation, confidently storing at least 500 668-byte blocks per second.
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Blockchain technologies offer decentralized, secure, and transparent transaction sys tems but face significant scalability challenges, especially in mobile and peer-to-peer environments. Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)-based protocols, such as Trustchain, present a promising alternative by allowing each agent to maintain a personal chain of relevant transactions, thereby improving throughput and reducing resource consump tion. Despite its theoretical potential, Trustchain has not yet been effectively imple mented for smartphones. To evaluate performance, we provide an implementation over two communication protocols, focusing on throughput. We found that our QUIC-based implementation displays an over three times throughput improvement when keeping a QUIC connection open, and can confidently store at least 28 536-byte blocks per sec ond. However, our UDP-based version outperforms our implementation, confidently storing at least 500 668-byte blocks per second.
Communication Protocol Impact on Energy Efficiency of Blockchain Application
Analysis of Energy Efficiency of Android Blockchain Application Using UDP or QUIC
Blockchain is already a widely adopted solution which can achieve decentralized storage in trustless settings. However, it is infamous for its high energy demands, making it difficult to operate on mobile phones with limited battery life. Among many design decisions in a blockchain implementation, is the choice of the communication protocol used for messaging between the participants. This work systematically evaluates the energy efficiency of custom blockchain implementations: over UDP and over QUIC with Iroh Rust crate for Android devices. The results demonstrate a higher energy demand by the QUIC-based implementation, with up to 34\% faster battery discharge on average compared to the UDP approach. Investigations show different energy usage per CPU and Wi-Fi components, and network traffic profile during the application's operation. These findings highlight the trade-offs related to energy efficiency in designing a blockchain-based system.
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Blockchain is already a widely adopted solution which can achieve decentralized storage in trustless settings. However, it is infamous for its high energy demands, making it difficult to operate on mobile phones with limited battery life. Among many design decisions in a blockchain implementation, is the choice of the communication protocol used for messaging between the participants. This work systematically evaluates the energy efficiency of custom blockchain implementations: over UDP and over QUIC with Iroh Rust crate for Android devices. The results demonstrate a higher energy demand by the QUIC-based implementation, with up to 34\% faster battery discharge on average compared to the UDP approach. Investigations show different energy usage per CPU and Wi-Fi components, and network traffic profile during the application's operation. These findings highlight the trade-offs related to energy efficiency in designing a blockchain-based system.
Scaling TrustChain to One Million Blocks on Mobile Devices
Storage Performance Evaluation and Benchmarking
Smartphones offer limited storage and memory, con- straints that conventional blockchains struggle to meet, yet they are also the devices where user- owned transaction chains promise the most value. We present the first empirical study of TrustChain, a DAG-based per-peer ledger running entirely on mobile hardware. A Rust implementation and open- source benchmark evaluate how flush-interval batch- ing (k) and lossless compression affect a single node scaling from 103 to 106 blocks.
On a Galaxy S8 and Pixel-6 emulator, RAM stays below 600 MB and compressed disk use below 0.5 GB at one million blocks (128 B payload). Insert la- tency remains interactive (< 8 ms) with disk:100 flushing; moderate batching (k ≈ 500) cuts CPU load by roughly 45 % without harming durabil- ity. Lightweight compression (LZ4-1, Zstd-1) trims space by 20 to 30 % at a sub-10 ms cost, with diminishing returns at higher levels. End-to-end tests show storage is never the bottleneck, raw UDP achieving a 7 ms median RTT.
Taken together, the implementation and measure- ment dataset provide a concrete reference for deploy- ing DAG-based chains on smartphones and highlight opportunities for advancing mobile blockchain tech- nology. ...
On a Galaxy S8 and Pixel-6 emulator, RAM stays below 600 MB and compressed disk use below 0.5 GB at one million blocks (128 B payload). Insert la- tency remains interactive (< 8 ms) with disk:100 flushing; moderate batching (k ≈ 500) cuts CPU load by roughly 45 % without harming durabil- ity. Lightweight compression (LZ4-1, Zstd-1) trims space by 20 to 30 % at a sub-10 ms cost, with diminishing returns at higher levels. End-to-end tests show storage is never the bottleneck, raw UDP achieving a 7 ms median RTT.
Taken together, the implementation and measure- ment dataset provide a concrete reference for deploy- ing DAG-based chains on smartphones and highlight opportunities for advancing mobile blockchain tech- nology. ...
Smartphones offer limited storage and memory, con- straints that conventional blockchains struggle to meet, yet they are also the devices where user- owned transaction chains promise the most value. We present the first empirical study of TrustChain, a DAG-based per-peer ledger running entirely on mobile hardware. A Rust implementation and open- source benchmark evaluate how flush-interval batch- ing (k) and lossless compression affect a single node scaling from 103 to 106 blocks.
On a Galaxy S8 and Pixel-6 emulator, RAM stays below 600 MB and compressed disk use below 0.5 GB at one million blocks (128 B payload). Insert la- tency remains interactive (< 8 ms) with disk:100 flushing; moderate batching (k ≈ 500) cuts CPU load by roughly 45 % without harming durabil- ity. Lightweight compression (LZ4-1, Zstd-1) trims space by 20 to 30 % at a sub-10 ms cost, with diminishing returns at higher levels. End-to-end tests show storage is never the bottleneck, raw UDP achieving a 7 ms median RTT.
Taken together, the implementation and measure- ment dataset provide a concrete reference for deploy- ing DAG-based chains on smartphones and highlight opportunities for advancing mobile blockchain tech- nology.
On a Galaxy S8 and Pixel-6 emulator, RAM stays below 600 MB and compressed disk use below 0.5 GB at one million blocks (128 B payload). Insert la- tency remains interactive (< 8 ms) with disk:100 flushing; moderate batching (k ≈ 500) cuts CPU load by roughly 45 % without harming durabil- ity. Lightweight compression (LZ4-1, Zstd-1) trims space by 20 to 30 % at a sub-10 ms cost, with diminishing returns at higher levels. End-to-end tests show storage is never the bottleneck, raw UDP achieving a 7 ms median RTT.
Taken together, the implementation and measure- ment dataset provide a concrete reference for deploy- ing DAG-based chains on smartphones and highlight opportunities for advancing mobile blockchain tech- nology.
We present a passport-level trust token for Europe. In an era of escalating cyber threats fueled by global competition in economic, military, and technological domains, traditional security models are proving inadequate. The rise of advanced attacks exploiting zero-day vulnerabilities, supply chain infiltration, and system interdependencies underscores the need for a paradigm shift in cybersecurity. Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) emerges as a transformative framework that replaces implicit trust with continuous verification of identity and granular access control. This thesis introduces TrustZero, a scalable layer of zero trust security built around a universal ”trust token”- a non revocable self-sovereign identity with cryptographic signatures to enable robust, mathematically grounded trust attestations. By integrating ZTA principles with cryptography, TrustZero establishes a secure web-of-trust framework adaptable to legacy systems and inter-organizational communication.
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We present a passport-level trust token for Europe. In an era of escalating cyber threats fueled by global competition in economic, military, and technological domains, traditional security models are proving inadequate. The rise of advanced attacks exploiting zero-day vulnerabilities, supply chain infiltration, and system interdependencies underscores the need for a paradigm shift in cybersecurity. Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) emerges as a transformative framework that replaces implicit trust with continuous verification of identity and granular access control. This thesis introduces TrustZero, a scalable layer of zero trust security built around a universal ”trust token”- a non revocable self-sovereign identity with cryptographic signatures to enable robust, mathematically grounded trust attestations. By integrating ZTA principles with cryptography, TrustZero establishes a secure web-of-trust framework adaptable to legacy systems and inter-organizational communication.
Webs represents a n ambitious attempt to democratize access to financial instruments and reimagine economic coordination. At its core, Web3 envisions a public infrastructure where users actively contribute to and share control of the systems they depend upon. Yet the gap between this vision and today's implementations reveals deep architectural flaws.
This thesis revisits Web3's foundations from first principles. Our investigation reveals that persistent vulnerabilities like transaction manipulation, Sybil attacks, and selfish behavior stem from misguided assumptions about participant behavior and misplaced focus on consensus alone.
Trustworthy Web3 foundations must account for the fact that protocols can be forked, validators run different software versions, and participants operate under diverse incentives. These realities demand accountability and incentive alignment mechanisms beyond traditional security models. ...
This thesis revisits Web3's foundations from first principles. Our investigation reveals that persistent vulnerabilities like transaction manipulation, Sybil attacks, and selfish behavior stem from misguided assumptions about participant behavior and misplaced focus on consensus alone.
Trustworthy Web3 foundations must account for the fact that protocols can be forked, validators run different software versions, and participants operate under diverse incentives. These realities demand accountability and incentive alignment mechanisms beyond traditional security models. ...
Webs represents a n ambitious attempt to democratize access to financial instruments and reimagine economic coordination. At its core, Web3 envisions a public infrastructure where users actively contribute to and share control of the systems they depend upon. Yet the gap between this vision and today's implementations reveals deep architectural flaws.
This thesis revisits Web3's foundations from first principles. Our investigation reveals that persistent vulnerabilities like transaction manipulation, Sybil attacks, and selfish behavior stem from misguided assumptions about participant behavior and misplaced focus on consensus alone.
Trustworthy Web3 foundations must account for the fact that protocols can be forked, validators run different software versions, and participants operate under diverse incentives. These realities demand accountability and incentive alignment mechanisms beyond traditional security models.
This thesis revisits Web3's foundations from first principles. Our investigation reveals that persistent vulnerabilities like transaction manipulation, Sybil attacks, and selfish behavior stem from misguided assumptions about participant behavior and misplaced focus on consensus alone.
Trustworthy Web3 foundations must account for the fact that protocols can be forked, validators run different software versions, and participants operate under diverse incentives. These realities demand accountability and incentive alignment mechanisms beyond traditional security models.
We present a decentralised alternative to the winner-takes-everything dynamics of social media platforms.
For 25 years there have been continuous attempts to decentralise file sharing, music streaming, video conferencing, and social media.
None of these hundreds of projects to re-decentralise the Internet have reached the uptake level of YouTube and TikTok. They are rarely easy to use.
We present DeToks, a fully decentralised alternative to Youtube and Tiktok. DeToks is not dependant on any central server or cloud. DeToks is specifically designed to be as decentralised and attack-resilient as Bitcoin and Bittorrent.
Our core contribution is effortless 5G Network Address Translators (NATs) puncturing.
Direct phone-to-phone communication is not available on today's smartphones. DeToks solves this problem.
NATs and carrier-grade NATs block direct communication between smartphones.
We procured 30+ SIMs card on European 4G/5G mobile networks and measured the carrier-grade NATs behavior. We determined the NAT types (full cone,restricted,symmetric) and their time-out settings. By leveraging provider-aware (Vodafone,Orange,Telia, etc.) NAT puncturing strategies we create direct UDP-based phone-to-phone connectivity.
We utilise parallelism by opening at least 500 Internet datagram sockets on two devices. By relying on provider-aware IPv4 range allocations, provider-aware port prediction heuristics, high bandwidth probing, and the birthday paradox we can successfully bypass even symmetric NATs. Our communication method achieves peer-to-peer 5G connectivity at the cost of merely some initial delay and bandwidth, without any assistance from third party servers or clouds.
Detoks validates our 5G puncturing work. We demonstrate the feasibility of fully decentralized social media platforms on consumer mobile devices.
We present a decentralised alternative to the winner-takes-everything dynamics of social media platforms.
For 25 years there have been continuous attempts to decentralise file sharing, music streaming, video conferencing, and social media.
None of these hundreds of projects to re-decentralise the Internet have reached the uptake level of YouTube and TikTok. They are rarely easy to use.
We present DeToks, a fully decentralised alternative to Youtube and Tiktok. DeToks is not dependant on any central server or cloud. DeToks is specifically designed to be as decentralised and attack-resilient as Bitcoin and Bittorrent.
Our core contribution is effortless 5G Network Address Translators (NATs) puncturing.
Direct phone-to-phone communication is not available on today's smartphones. DeToks solves this problem.
NATs and carrier-grade NATs block direct communication between smartphones.
We procured 30+ SIMs card on European 4G/5G mobile networks and measured the carrier-grade NATs behavior. We determined the NAT types (full cone,restricted,symmetric) and their time-out settings. By leveraging provider-aware (Vodafone,Orange,Telia, etc.) NAT puncturing strategies we create direct UDP-based phone-to-phone connectivity.
We utilise parallelism by opening at least 500 Internet datagram sockets on two devices. By relying on provider-aware IPv4 range allocations, provider-aware port prediction heuristics, high bandwidth probing, and the birthday paradox we can successfully bypass even symmetric NATs. Our communication method achieves peer-to-peer 5G connectivity at the cost of merely some initial delay and bandwidth, without any assistance from third party servers or clouds.
Detoks validates our 5G puncturing work. We demonstrate the feasibility of fully decentralized social media platforms on consumer mobile devices.