Airborne wind energy (AWE) harnesses higher-altitude winds using kites to generate renewable electricity. As AWE technologies move closer to potential commercialization, understanding how local communities interact with and are affected by these technologies is crucial for socially responsible deployment. Identifying key predictors of community acceptance can help develop targeted measures to address potential impacts while the technology is still adaptable. This study tested the Integrated Acceptance Model (IAM) on survey data from two European AWE test sites. A linear regression analysis revealed that two of the five explanatory variables significantly predicted acceptance: perceived site impacts (e.g., sound emissions, landscape changes, and aviation lights), as well as developer transparency and fairness in site operations. In contrast, attitudes toward the energy transition, perceived economic impacts, and social norms did not predict acceptance. These findings suggest that while AWE developers prioritize technical challenges, attention must also be given to social factors, such as minimizing impacts and ensuring transparent and fair implementation. The results also have important policy implications, highlighting the need for AWE-specific regulations and socially responsible planning practices. Further research is required to investigate additional acceptance predictors, especially if AWE technologies continue to develop toward commercial applications. ... Read more

Airborne wind energy (AWE) is an emerging renewable technology that generates electricity using tethered flying devices, such as kites. It harvests wind energy at higher altitudes than conventional wind turbines. As the technology nears commercialization, its successful deployment will depend not only on technical and economic feasibility but also on social acceptance. Understanding how communities perceive and are affected by AWE can help ensure smoother deployment, protect community well-being, and enhance contribution to renewable energy goals.

This dissertation is among the first research to systematically investigate the social dimensions of AWE, focusing on community acceptance – residents’ approval of local energy projects – and its influencing factors. The research is based on surveys conducted with residents near AWE test sites in Europe and a laboratory listening experiment to assess reactions to AWE-related sound emissions. The findings demonstrate that community acceptance of AWE projects relates to a combination of technical characteristics, subjective perceptions, and the fairness and transparency of project implementation. In line with the applied Integrated Acceptance Model (IAM), stronger perceived impacts – such as sound emissions, landscape impacts, and aviation lights – were associated with lower levels of acceptance. At the same time, fair and transparent project implementation was linked to higher acceptance. Noise annoyance emerged as a critical factor, shaped by both psychoacoustic properties (i.e., sharpness, tonality, and loudness) and individual characteristics (i.e., noise sensitivity, familiarity with AWE, and age).

While most of the results align with research on wind turbine acceptance, some key differences emerge. Unlike for wind turbines, the remaining three IAM factors – perceived local economic benefits, expected community support for the project, and general attitudes toward the energy transition – did not significantly predict acceptance in the case of AWE. This may be due to the fact that the technology is still undergoing development and is not yet commercially available or contributing to renewable energy targets. As a result, economic and social considerations that are typically relevant for commercial energy projects may not yet be salient for communities living near AWE test sites.

The findings highlight the need to incorporate social science insights into AWE development from the outset. By investing in interdisciplinary research, developing targeted mitigation strategies, engaging with local communities meaningfully, and establishing robust regulatory frameworks, the AWE sector can avoid common pitfalls faced by established renewable energy technologies. The early stage of AWE presents an opportunity to learn from these experiences and take proactive steps to ensure that the technology is developed and deployed in a way that is both technically and socially viable. By anticipating and addressing potential social challenges early on, the sector can help ensure that AWE gains public trust and contributes to a just energy transition.

In addition to Dr. Roland Schmehl and Dr. Gerdien de Vries, this doctoral dissertation greatly benefited from the guidance of Dr. Reint Jan Renes (Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences). ... Read more

This study investigates the relationship between sound quality metrics (SQMs) and noise annoyance caused by airborne wind energy systems (AWESs). In a controlled listening experiment, 75 participants rated their annoyance on the International Commission on Biological Effects of Noise (ICBEN) scale in response to recordings from in-field measurements of two fixed-wing and one soft-wing ground-generation AWES. All recordings were normalized to an equivalent A-weighted sound pressure level of 45 dBA. The results revealed that sharpness was the only SQM predicting participants' annoyance. Fixed-wing kites, characterized by sharper and more tonal and narrowband sound profiles, were rated as more annoying than the soft-wing kite, characterized by higher loudness values. In addition, the effect of some SQMs on annoyance depended on participant characteristics, with loudness having a weaker impact on annoyance for participants familiar with AWESs and tonality having a weaker effect on annoyance for older participants. These findings emphasize the importance of considering psychoacoustic factors in the design and operation of AWESs to reduce noise annoyance. ... Read more

Airborne wind energy (AWE) is an emerging renewable energy technology that uses kites to harvest winds at higher altitudes than wind turbines. Understanding how residents experience a local AWE system (AWES) is important as the technology approaches commercialization. Such knowledge can help adjust the design and deployment of an AWES to fit locals' needs better, thereby decreasing the technology's burden on people. Although the AWE literature claims that the technology affects nature and residents less than wind turbines, empirical evidence has been lacking. This first community acceptance study recruited residents within a 3.5 km radius of an AWE test site in Northern Germany. Using structured questionnaires, 54 residents rated the AWES and the closest wind farm on visual, sound, safety, siting, environmental, and ecological aspects. Contrary to the literature's claims, residents assessed the noise, ecological, and safety impacts similarly for the AWES and the wind farm. Only visual impacts were rated better for the AWES (e.g., no shadows were perceived). Consistent with research on wind turbines, residents who rated the site operation as fairer and the developer as more transparent tended to have more positive attitudes towards the AWES and to experience less noise annoyance. Consequently, recommendations for the AWE industry and policymakers include mitigating technology impacts and implementing evidence-based strategies to ensure just and effective project development. The findings are limited to one specific AWES using soft-wing kites. Future research should assess community responses across regions and different types of AWESs to test the findings' generalizability. ... Read more

Community and stakeholder engagement was widely discussed at the WindEurope Annual Event 2023 – an important convention for the European wind energy industry and policymakers. Interviews with four European wind energy developers and a social scientist at the convention reveal that developers' community engagement practices vary in their extent and purpose. In line with the literature, three approaches could be distinguished across developers. The first approach, instrumental engagement, focuses on overcoming public opposition through information provision and dialogue without actively involving residents in project planning. The second approach, normative engagement, recognizes the value of transparent and fair engagement, considering residents' concerns and feedback but with limitations on their influence over project decisions. The third approach, substantive engagement, seeks to empower communities and give them ownership over projects, aiming to improve social outcomes and make them part of the energy transition. While community engagement practices have improved, challenges remain, and a cultural change in the wind energy sector towards viewing communities as collaborators rather than opponents is needed. Educating engineers on the social impacts of wind energy and fostering interdisciplinary collaborations can contribute to more meaningful and successful community engagement in wind energy projects. ... Read more

Airborne wind energy (AWE) systems use tethered flying devices to harvest higher-altitude winds to produce electricity. For the success of the technology, it is crucial to understand how people perceive and respond to it. If concerns about the technology are not taken seriously, it could delay or prevent implementation, resulting in increased costs for project developers and a lower contribution to renewable energy targets. This literature review assessed the current state of knowledge on the social acceptance of AWE. A systematic literature search led to the identification of 40 relevant publications that were reviewed. The literature expected that the safety, visibility, acoustic emissions, ecological impacts, and the siting of AWE systems impact to which extent the technology will be accepted. The reviewed literature viewed the social acceptance of AWE optimistically but lacked scientific evidence to back up its claims. It seemed to overlook the fact that the impact of AWE’s characteristics (e.g., visibility) on people’s responses will also depend on a range of situational and psychological factors (e.g., the planning process, the community’s trust in project developers). Therefore, empirical social science research is needed to increase the field’s understanding of the acceptance of AWE and thereby facilitate development and deployment. ... Read more