This study examines the role of turbulence distortion in predicting inflow turbulence (IT) noise generation from large wind turbines via Amiet's theory. Two subsequent distortion mechanisms are investigated: (i) the streamtube expansion in the rotor induction zone and (ii) the interaction with the surface of thick-blade profiles. Large-eddy simulations reveal that the turbulence spectra, which reflect distortion effects, remain largely unaffected by rotor induction within the frequency range relevant for noise generation. As for the other mechanism, the distortion of the turbulence approaching a blade leading edge is modeled with a simplified closed-form solution of Goldstein's rapid distortion theory. This model, based on vorticity deflection, is extended here beyond the high-frequency approximation and integrated into an analytical Amiet-based IT noise tool. Applications to representative test cases show that while distortion effects are minimal for current turbine sizes, they become relevant for future configurations featuring larger rotor sizes and thicker airfoils. The developed model reveals that IT noise levels do not necessarily scale with rotor size but are shaped by spectral changes induced by the blade geometry, operational parameters, and inflow conditions. This model offers a physically consistent, computationally efficient framework for the aeroacoustic assessment of next-generation wind turbine design.

This study explores the potential of simulation methodologies in the early stages of the acoustic design of advanced air mobility cabins. With perceptual assessment as a priority, the approach includes conducting listening experiments based on the auralization of simulation results. For this, a cabin was simulated under the stochastic load of a turbulent boundary layer and auralized as representative cabin noise. The listening experiments investigated the impact of cabin parameter variations—specifically Young's modulus, skin thickness, and fluid bulk modulus—on the participants' perception and preferences. The findings show that utilizing the presented methodology within an early design scope produced audible differences for these parameter variations. With significant changes to the signals' preference probabilities, the proposed method is able to provide a better understanding and statistical depth to the cabin acoustic design process. Loudness and A-weighted sound pressure levels reliably predicted preferences, whereas other psychoacoustic metrics were of little significance, mainly due to the stochastic, stationary, and low-frequency characteristics of the noise samples. Furthermore, the position of the passenger within the cabin model significantly affected the preferences. Adding authentic cabin sounds to the auralizations did not significantly alter the parameter variations' preference distributions.

The growing adoption of electric vehicles, known for their quieter operation compared to internal combustion engine vehicles, raises concerns about their detectability, particularly for vulnerable road users. To address this, regulations mandate the inclusion of exterior sound signals for electric vehicles, specifying minimum sound pressure levels at low speeds. These synthetic exterior sounds are often used in noisy urban environments, creating the challenge of enhancing detectability without introducing excessive noise annoyance. This study investigates the design of synthetic exterior sound signals that balance high noticeability with low annoyance. An audiovisual experiment with 14 participants was conducted using 15 virtual reality scenarios featuring a passing car. The scenarios included various sound signals, such as pure, intermittent, and complex tones at different frequencies. Two baseline cases, a diesel engine and only tyre noise, were also tested. Participants rated sounds for annoyance, noticeability, and informativeness using 11-point ICBEN scales. The findings highlight how psychoacoustic sound quality metrics predict annoyance ratings better than conventional sound metrics, providing insight into optimising sound design for electric vehicles. By improving pedestrian safety while minimising noise pollution, this research supports the development of effective and user-friendly exterior sound standards for electric vehicles.

The human perception of two wind turbines of different sizes, a small NTK turbine and a larger NREL model, was evaluated through their synthetically auralised sound. A wide range of wind speed conditions and observer locations was considered. The simulated sounds were analyzed using equivalent sound pressure levels and psychoacoustic sound quality metrics. Moreover, listening experiments were conducted to evaluate the human response to the same sounds. The least-squares models fitted to the results provided scaling laws for the different sound metrics as a function of wind speed (divided into low- and high-speed regimes) and distance to the observer. At lower wind speeds, the NREL turbine’s noise and annoyance levels increase faster with increasing wind speed than the NTK turbine. The results of the NREL turbine at high wind speeds seem to indicate that turbulent boundary layer trailing-edge noise contributes more to annoyance than leading edge turbulent inflow noise. In the listening experiments, the larger wind turbine was perceived roughly 30% more annoying than the smaller one for the same conditions. The equivalent A-weighted sound pressure level and the psychoacoustic annoyance model by Zwicker were reported to closely represent the annoyance ratings reported in the listening experiment.

The influence of ambient noise in the perception of wind turbine noise is evaluated in this exploratory study. For this purpose, experimental field measurements of an NTK wind turbine at different wind speeds and background noise levels are considered. Synthetic wind turbine noise auralizations are then computed to replicate the weather and operational conditions during the experiments. Different background noise recordings were then synthetically added to the simulated auralizations to investigate the effect in sound quality metrics, such as loudness, roughness, or the psychoacoustic annoyance model by Zwicker. A least-squares analysis was applied to the resulting sound signals. It was found that adding background noise to the auralisations notably reduced the differences in metrics between simulations and experiments. However, the behaviour with respect to the A-weighted signal-to-noise ratio then becomes background-noise dependent and, hence, more challenging to predict. Therefore, for perceptual studies, it is recommended to use experimental recordings with low background noise as a ground truth.

Aircraft noise annoyance is inherently subjective, and its accurate quantification represents a challenging task. There is a lack of consensus in the scientific community regarding which metrics are best for effectively representing this type of annoyance. The present study aims at relating various sound metrics to noise annoyance ratings measured in listening experiments featuring 60 aircraft flyover recordings (30 landings and 30 takeoffs). This is done by considering different sound quality metrics (SQMs), psychoacoustic annoyance models, and more conventional noise certification metrics, such as the effective perceived noise level (EPNL) or the sound exposure level. A correlation analysis was subsequently performed on a large pool of sound metrics considering both linear and non-linear functions. The results show that, in general, metrics derived from psychoacoustic annoyance models (especially those proposed by Zwicker and Di et al.) present considerably better correlations compared to conventional metrics and most individual SQMs. The metrics of loudness, EPNL, and maximum perceived noise level (PNL) also exhibit strong correlations and capacity to predict a substantial portion of the variance observed in the reported annoyance ratings. Moreover, considering non-linear functions (e.g. logarithmic or hyperbolic tangent power) further improves the prediction performance.

The issue of acoustic reflections caused by an axisymmetric nozzle is addressed both numerically and experimentally. The contraction (with an exit diameter of 420 mm and a contraction ratio of 2) is representative of typical open-jet wind tunnel exits. Such a category of wind tunnels are extensively used in aeroacoustic studies due to the possibility of acoustic treatment of the test chamber (plenum) walls and the placement of acoustic sensors outside of the flow. The distance between the wind tunnel’s nozzle exit and the model being tested is usually limited to around one hydraulic diameter in order for the model to be fully contained within the exit jet’s core. Partly for this reason, the wind tunnel nozzle normally protrudes inside the anechoic plenum to distance the tested model from the (acoustically-treated) walls. This effectively creates a cavity, which is in communication with the test section. Acoustic simulations through a commercial finite-element code (COMSOL Multiphysics) show that the presence of the nozzle leads to interference patterns within the test section and a substantial modification of a source’s measured directivity pattern. Experimental measurements in a fully anechoic chamber confirm these results. Melamine foam inserts on both the exit flange and part of the inner walls of the contraction are shown to mitigate the issue partly.

Psychoacoustic listening experiments were conducted to investigate the human response to propeller noise under turbulent inflow conditions. The sound stimuli considered were recorded in aeroacoustic wind tunnel experiments featuring an isolated six-bladed propeller. The propeller operated under different isotropic inflow turbulence conditions and collective blade pitch angles. Higher inflow turbulence intensity levels caused a growth in the broadband noise emissions of the propeller, increasing the overall loudness levels. On the other hand, sharpness and tonality consistently decreased due to the increase in low-frequency noise and the tone-masking effect by the aforementioned broadband noise, respectively. The listening experiments aimed to elucidate the effect of these contradicting trends on sound perception. It was observed that lower noise annoyance ratings were reported for higher inflow turbulence intensity levels and lower collective blade pitch angles. Overall, only the tonality metric provided a statistically significant correlation with the annoyance ratings, indicating the importance of this perceptual aspect in propeller noise, in combination with loudness and sharpness. Other energy-based sound metrics, like the effective perceived noise level, failed to correctly describe the results of the listening experiment. In general, this analysis is valuable for the perception-influenced design of devices equipped with propellers.

The application of an acoustically absorbent material (melamine foam) is investigated for the treatment of turbulence grids in an anechoic open-jet wind tunnel facility featuring an axisymmetric contraction. A comparative study of both the generated turbulence and the grids’ self-noise is performed. It is found that the application of melamine foam on the downstream side of the grids marginally affects the produced turbulence, while providing an efficient suppression of tonal peaks in the grids’ self-noise spectrum. Broadband noise levels instead show opposing trends depending on the frequency range considered. On the one hand, a general decrease due to the acoustic treatment is observed for Strouhal numbers lower than unity. On the other, an increase, in the form of broad peaks, is seen to occur over certain higher frequency ranges.

The far-field acoustic emissions of an isolated scale-model propeller ingesting turbulent inflow are experimentally investigated in wind-tunnel measurements. Phase-averaging and phase-shifting signal processing techniques are used to separate the deterministic (tonal) and random (broadband) components of the recorded sound signals. It is reported that a combination of the two techniques prevents tones unrelated to the shaft rotational frequency from contaminating the estimate of the broadband part of the signal. Scaling and directivity analyses of the obtained broadband component highlight the presence of two noise generation regimes depending on the considered frequency range. In particular, a quasi-omnidirectional directivity pattern is observed for frequencies for which the Helmholtz number is much lower than unity when turbulence is ingested. On the other hand, a dipole-like pattern with minima close to the propeller’s rotational plane gradually appears for higher frequencies. A time- and frequency-domain analysis through the Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) method shows how the increase in broadband noise is due to a large number of short-duration pulses linked to the ingestion of turbulence.

This study investigates the relationship between sound quality metrics (SQMs) and noise annoyance caused by airborne wind energy systems (AWESs). In a controlled listening experiment, 75 participants rated their annoyance on the International Commission on Biological Effects of Noise (ICBEN) scale in response to recordings from in-field measurements of two fixed-wing and one soft-wing ground-generation AWES. All recordings were normalized to an equivalent A-weighted sound pressure level of 45 dBA. The results revealed that sharpness was the only SQM predicting participants' annoyance. Fixed-wing kites, characterized by sharper and more tonal and narrowband sound profiles, were rated as more annoying than the soft-wing kite, characterized by higher loudness values. In addition, the effect of some SQMs on annoyance depended on participant characteristics, with loudness having a weaker impact on annoyance for participants familiar with AWESs and tonality having a weaker effect on annoyance for older participants. These findings emphasize the importance of considering psychoacoustic factors in the design and operation of AWESs to reduce noise annoyance.

Distributed propulsion systems are developed to power a new generation of aircraft. However, it is not known yet which noise emissions these propulsion systems produce, which psychoacoustic characteristics such systems exhibit, and how the generated noise is perceived. This paper investigates how fans with fewer stator than rotor blades affect the noise perception of a distributed propulsion system intended for an urban air mobility vehicle, which is equipped with 26 low-speed ducted fans. Three fan designs with different tonal to broadband noise ratio and opposite dominant noise radiation directions are examined. An analytical process is applied to determine the noise emission, propagate the sound through the atmosphere, auralize the flyover signals, and calculate psychoacoustic metrics. A validation and comparison with A320 turbofan engines at takeoff is provided. The results indicate that the distributed propulsion system generates noise signatures with complex directional characteristics and high sharpness. By applying tonal noise reduction mechanisms at source, a significant effective perceived noise level reduction is achieved for the considered fan stages with fewer stator than rotor blades. In addition, tonality, loudness and roughness are reduced well above one noticeable difference compared to a baseline fan and similar or even lower values are achieved than with turbofans.

Most aircraft noise research is solely based on audio recordings. Nevertheless, the use of virtual reality (VR) environments provides a more immersive experience and, hence, a higher level of realism when conducting psychoacoustic listening experiments in laboratory conditions. Moreover, this approach enables the analysis of non-acoustical factors (e.g. visual cues). This study evaluates the influence of different (audio-)visual parameters in the perceived noise annoyance reported in VR experiments. For this purpose, an open-source application developed in Unity was employed to simulate 16 different VR scenarios based on real-life locations. These scenarios were characterized by different binary visual aspects (e.g. rural vs. urban, sunny vs. cloudy, or artificial vs. natural). In each scene, the same binaural aircraft flyover recording was employed to focus on the effect of the different environmental conditions. However, the background noise differed per soundscape, providing different signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) values. The influence of the aircraft visibility (not rendered in some cloudy scenarios) was also evaluated. The results show that, in general, cloudy, rural, and natural environments were perceived as slightly more annoying. Moreover, a significant and moderate correlation was observed between the annoyance ratings and the SNR, showing that background noise can partly mask the presence of aircraft.

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), which operate more quietly than internal combustion engine vehicles, raises concerns about their detectability, particularly for visually impaired road users. Regulations mandate exterior sound signals for EVs, ensuring minimum sound pressure levels at low speeds. However, these signals are often used in already noisy urban environments, creating a challenge: enhancing detectability without adding excessive noise pollution. This study explores the use of synthetic exterior sounds that balance high noticeability with low annoyance. An audiovisual experiment was conducted with 20 participants in 15 virtual reality scenarios featuring an EV passing in front of them. Different sound signals, including pure, intermittent, and complex tones at varying frequencies, were tested alongside two baseline cases (a diesel engine and tyre noise alone, i.e., no synthetic sound added). Participants rated sounds for annoyance, noticeability, and informativeness using 11-point ICBEN scales. Trigger measurements provided additional insights into their willingness to cross in front of the EV. The results highlight optimal sound characteristics for EVs, offering guidance on improving pedestrian safety while minimising noise pollution. By refining exterior sound design, this research contributes to the development of effective and user-friendly EV sound standards, ensuring safer and more inclusive urban environments.

Novel propulsion concepts are being developed for urban air mobility (UAM). This study analyses the noise emissions of a virtual UAM vehicle equipped with 26 distributed, ducted, low-speed fans. Synthetic flyover sounds are generated using an auralization framework, which involves noise predictions, sound propagation, and the binaural audio rendering at the observer position. Since noise emissions of distributed propulsion are characterized by interference effects, this paper discusses the influence of rotational speed fluctuations of the distributed fans on the sound perception of the auralized sounds. These rotational speed fluctuations are modelled as different ranges of random and constant deviations from the nominal speed, in contrast to the baseline case with the 26 fans operating synchronously. The results of a listening experiment performed to evaluate the perceptual differences between the different configurations seem to indicate that relatively small fluctuations in the rotational speed of the fans (e.g. $\pm1\%$ with respect to the nominal rpm) already notably improve the perceived noise annoyance. The observed differences in annoyance ratings are reasonably well explained by sound metrics that consider the tonal nature of sound, such as the effective perceived noise level (EPNL), tonality, and the psychoacoustic annoyance model by Di et al.

The far-field acoustic emissions of a six-bladed propeller were investigated in aeroacoustic experiments in an openjet wind tunnel. The propeller was operating in different isotropic inflow turbulence conditions generated by turbulence grids placed upstream of the exit plane of the wind tunnel nozzle. In addition, the collective pitch angle of the propeller blades was also varied throughout the measurements. A preliminary directivity analysis of different acoustic and psychoacoustic metrics was performed to investigate the influence of the inflow turbulence intensity and collective pitch angle on the noise emissions and sound perception. In general, increasing the inflow turbulence levels did not modify the conventional metrics recorded, e.g. equivalent sound pressure level. Nevertheless, it considerably increased the broadband noise emissions of the propeller, the loudness, and the overall psychoacoustic annoyance metrics. However, notable reductions in tonality (due to partial tone masking because of the higher levels of broadband noise) and sharpness were reported for increasing turbulence intensities. Overall, this analysis is valuable for the perception-influenced design of devices equipped with propellers, such as drones or urban air mobility vehicles, to account for installation effects.

Correction Notice • Place s5 in front of the symbols ‘greater than or equal to (≥)’ and ‘less than (<)’ in Equation 2, as shown below. (Formula Presented). • Replace the correlation coefficient ‘0.886’ showed in Table 6 to ‘-0.886’. This correction also apply to the paragraph below Section 3 (Correlation between Annoyance and Drone Characteristics) and in the last paragraph of the Conclusions. This negative value indicates an inverse relationship between the installation ratio (d/D) and the annoyance computed using the More PA model. • Replace ‘0.337 (Zwicker PA model)’ by ‘0.362 (Willemsen PA model)’ in the paragraph below Section 3 (Correlation between Annoyance and Drone Characteristics). This value (0.362) is also reported in Table 6.

This manuscript presents a psychoacoustic analysis of the noise emissions from the Airbus A320 aircraft family, with a special focus on the tonal noise emitted by its nose landing gear (NLG) system. The study is based on microphone array measurements of aircraft flyovers under operational conditions performed next to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. It was found that the NLG system is a dominant tonal noise source for all aircraft subtypes measured (A319, A320, A320neo, A321, and A321neo) around 1700 Hz. The magnitude of the tonal noise observed was strongly correlated with the aircraft velocity, whereas the tonal frequency remained relatively constant. A preliminary psychoacoustic analysis between the different aircraft subtypes showed that, on average, the neo versions presented higher metric values for effective perceived noise level (EPNL), psychoacoustic annoyance, and loudness but lower tonality than their older ceo counterparts. However, given the low number of neo samples available in this study, no strong conclusion can be drawn from this analysis. Overall, the A321 aircraft measured presented lower average values for all noise metrics evaluated than the A320 ones, despite being larger and heavier. These claims will be evaluated in upcoming dedicated psychoacoustic listening experiments.

In recent years, the search for more sustainable propulsion systems for aviation has led to an increased interest in electric propulsion aircraft. These aircraft are often claimed to be more silent due to the lack of an internal combustion engine which eliminates the combustion and exhaust noise. However, the dominant noise source for single-propeller aircraft, independent of the propulsion method, is often the propeller itself. Additionally, lower noise levels simply assessed with conventional sound metrics like the sound pressure levels might not necessarily correspond to lower noise annoyance. Therefore, this research investigates the noise levels and expected psychoacoustic annoyance of the electric aircraft Pipistrel Velis in comparison to its fuel-burning counterpart, the Pipistrel Virus. The Velis can serve as a direct replacement for the Virus as they have the same number of seats and the same take-off weight, raising the question of what the effect of this replacement is on community noise annoyance. The research is based on experimental measurements during flyovers of both aircraft. Overall, it was found that the Velis is found to have lower noise emissions and lower psychoacoustic annoyance according to its sound quality metrics. This is reflected in the loudness, tonality, and impulsiveness, likely due to the presence of fewer tones below 500 Hz.

The current study reports the results of a psychoacoustic listening experiment investigating the human response to the noise emissions from various types of drone flyovers, recorded during acoustic field experiments. The investigation covers six quadcopters with single propellers, a quadcopter with counterrotating propellers, and two types of hybrid electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) drones. These recorded audio samples were employed in a dedicated listening experiment conducted at the Psychoacoustic Listening Laboratory (PALILA) in the faculty of Aerospace Engineering of Delft University of Technology, involving 57 participants. The two eVTOL drones were perceived as considerably less annoying than their quadcopter counterparts, whereas the coaxial-propeller quadcopter was found to be the most annoying drone. Strong correlations were found between the mass and volume of the quadcopter drones and the annoyance ratings from the listening experiments. Psychoacoustic annoyance metrics from different models proved to predict the perceived noise annoyance more accurately than conventional sound metrics typically employed in noise assessment.