D.M. van de Velde
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This paper explores the underexamined role of culture in the governance of public transport. Using a structured review methodology, we analysed a select body of literature across the domains of governance, public transport, collaboration, uncertainty, and culture. We identify how culture is conceptualised, the methodological approaches used, and how cultural dimensions become visible in moments of uncertainty. Based on this analysis, we identified six sensitising factors that influence the cultural layer of governance: geographical location, duration, external pressures, alignment of values and goals, and the degree of regulation and integration, which we will use to support future empirical research. Our findings reveal a gap in the transport governance literature and point to the need for a systematic treatment of culture as a shaping element in the outcomes of public transport systems.
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This paper explores the underexamined role of culture in the governance of public transport. Using a structured review methodology, we analysed a select body of literature across the domains of governance, public transport, collaboration, uncertainty, and culture. We identify how culture is conceptualised, the methodological approaches used, and how cultural dimensions become visible in moments of uncertainty. Based on this analysis, we identified six sensitising factors that influence the cultural layer of governance: geographical location, duration, external pressures, alignment of values and goals, and the degree of regulation and integration, which we will use to support future empirical research. Our findings reveal a gap in the transport governance literature and point to the need for a systematic treatment of culture as a shaping element in the outcomes of public transport systems.
A Public Service Contract (PSC) in passenger transport is a legal agreement where a transport authority assigns an operator to provide services under Public Service Obligations (PSOs), often with financial compensation. PSOs ensure socially desirable services that may not be viable without public funding. The shift towards formal contracting of public transport services began in the late 1980s, influenced by New Public Management (NPM). Contracts can be net or gross cost types, affecting risk and service flexibility. Effective contracting requires clear procedures addressing evolving public needs, asset management, service and quality monitoring.
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A Public Service Contract (PSC) in passenger transport is a legal agreement where a transport authority assigns an operator to provide services under Public Service Obligations (PSOs), often with financial compensation. PSOs ensure socially desirable services that may not be viable without public funding. The shift towards formal contracting of public transport services began in the late 1980s, influenced by New Public Management (NPM). Contracts can be net or gross cost types, affecting risk and service flexibility. Effective contracting requires clear procedures addressing evolving public needs, asset management, service and quality monitoring.
For decades, public transport services in most French towns and cities have been provided on a delegated management basis, by subcontracting to private parties, using calls for tender as a selection mechanism. Recently, however, a number of cities, some of them large, have opted for direct management, moving away from the private, competitive model in favour of public management.
Our study answers two questions: What is the scale of this shift? And how can it be interpreted: what are the triggers and motivations behind it? The literature on these questions is sparse, partial and dated. Our database shows that remunicipalisation is no longer an anecdotal phenomenon in France. Our interviews reveal that the motivations are always composite and that political factors are predominant. ...
Our study answers two questions: What is the scale of this shift? And how can it be interpreted: what are the triggers and motivations behind it? The literature on these questions is sparse, partial and dated. Our database shows that remunicipalisation is no longer an anecdotal phenomenon in France. Our interviews reveal that the motivations are always composite and that political factors are predominant. ...
For decades, public transport services in most French towns and cities have been provided on a delegated management basis, by subcontracting to private parties, using calls for tender as a selection mechanism. Recently, however, a number of cities, some of them large, have opted for direct management, moving away from the private, competitive model in favour of public management.
Our study answers two questions: What is the scale of this shift? And how can it be interpreted: what are the triggers and motivations behind it? The literature on these questions is sparse, partial and dated. Our database shows that remunicipalisation is no longer an anecdotal phenomenon in France. Our interviews reveal that the motivations are always composite and that political factors are predominant.
Our study answers two questions: What is the scale of this shift? And how can it be interpreted: what are the triggers and motivations behind it? The literature on these questions is sparse, partial and dated. Our database shows that remunicipalisation is no longer an anecdotal phenomenon in France. Our interviews reveal that the motivations are always composite and that political factors are predominant.
L'archive ouverte HAL SHS (Sciences de l’Homme et de la Société), est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion d'articles scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, dans toutes les disciplines des sciences humaines et de la société.
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L'archive ouverte HAL SHS (Sciences de l’Homme et de la Société), est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion d'articles scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, dans toutes les disciplines des sciences humaines et de la société.
This chapter presents an overview of the main features of the organization and provision of land passenger public transport in light of the profound reforms witnessed in the sector in the last decades. These regulatory reforms, inspired by a wave of neoliberal thinking, include as a key element the introduction of competition as a means to improve the efficiency of the sector. The chapter classifies and summarizes key existing policy options and concludes with a brief reflection of the future of public transport regulation in view of emerging technologies and service models.
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This chapter presents an overview of the main features of the organization and provision of land passenger public transport in light of the profound reforms witnessed in the sector in the last decades. These regulatory reforms, inspired by a wave of neoliberal thinking, include as a key element the introduction of competition as a means to improve the efficiency of the sector. The chapter classifies and summarizes key existing policy options and concludes with a brief reflection of the future of public transport regulation in view of emerging technologies and service models.
Workshop 2 report
Practical considerations in implementing different institutional regimes
This workshop focussed on practical aspects of change across institutional regimes in the public transport sector, covering the experience from 11 countries in the rail, bus and coach sectors. Two key themes guided the workshop discussion: the introduction of competition (processes of implementation and shifting competition regimes) and the functioning of mature competitive tendering regimes (contract design, bid evaluation and results). The workshop outcomes are presented along the line of three main issues. The first one is regime shifts, looking at triggers that make regimes evolve, discussing whether change necessarily takes place for the better and whether a regulatory cycle can be observed. The second one is getting a closer look at what exactly is being subjected to competition, discussing contractual scope, unbundling options, the function of the authority, system management and risk allocation. The third one investigates the actual functioning of competitive tendering regimes, discussing the issue of contract standardisation, bidding procedures and the design of evaluation and awarding mechanisms. The main recommendation of the workshop is to increase the strength of the PTA and to choose for gross-cost contracts.
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This workshop focussed on practical aspects of change across institutional regimes in the public transport sector, covering the experience from 11 countries in the rail, bus and coach sectors. Two key themes guided the workshop discussion: the introduction of competition (processes of implementation and shifting competition regimes) and the functioning of mature competitive tendering regimes (contract design, bid evaluation and results). The workshop outcomes are presented along the line of three main issues. The first one is regime shifts, looking at triggers that make regimes evolve, discussing whether change necessarily takes place for the better and whether a regulatory cycle can be observed. The second one is getting a closer look at what exactly is being subjected to competition, discussing contractual scope, unbundling options, the function of the authority, system management and risk allocation. The third one investigates the actual functioning of competitive tendering regimes, discussing the issue of contract standardisation, bidding procedures and the design of evaluation and awarding mechanisms. The main recommendation of the workshop is to increase the strength of the PTA and to choose for gross-cost contracts.
Journal article
(2020)
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Fabio Hirschhorn, Didier van de Velde, Wijnand Veeneman, Ernst ten Heuvelhof
Public authorities are under mounting pressure to promote more sustainable urban mobility, including a modal shift from cars. With an empirical focus on Oslo and Amsterdam metropolitan areas, this paper analyses how the interplay between formal frameworks, informal institutions, and individuals’ agency can contribute to making public transport more attractive in relation to other modes. Findings indicate that formal frameworks, informal institutions, and key actors co-exist and interact in complementary, substitutive, and accommodating manner; they work alongside each other to facilitate collective decision-making on issues ranging from integrating land use and transport to dealing with budget constraints. By identifying these types of interaction, this study shows that, to advance transport sustainability, authorities not only need insight on what policies to design, but can also benefit from understanding how policy-making and implementation unfold. A broader insight offered by the paper is that financial performance goals appear as a main policy driver in public transport, eclipsing sustainability concerns.
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Public authorities are under mounting pressure to promote more sustainable urban mobility, including a modal shift from cars. With an empirical focus on Oslo and Amsterdam metropolitan areas, this paper analyses how the interplay between formal frameworks, informal institutions, and individuals’ agency can contribute to making public transport more attractive in relation to other modes. Findings indicate that formal frameworks, informal institutions, and key actors co-exist and interact in complementary, substitutive, and accommodating manner; they work alongside each other to facilitate collective decision-making on issues ranging from integrating land use and transport to dealing with budget constraints. By identifying these types of interaction, this study shows that, to advance transport sustainability, authorities not only need insight on what policies to design, but can also benefit from understanding how policy-making and implementation unfold. A broader insight offered by the paper is that financial performance goals appear as a main policy driver in public transport, eclipsing sustainability concerns.
Competition in Public Transport
An Exploratory Research in Institutional Frameworks in the Public Transport Sector
This thesis finds its origins in the debates that developed in the 1980s in Western Europe as to the role competition and private entrepreneurship should play in the provision of public transport services. At the time, observation of the debates showed there was widespread misunderstanding about the institutional changes put in place and the results obtained. Against that background, the research in this thesis centred around gaining a deeper understanding of the variety of institutional frameworks that can exist in the public transport sector and on how these develop, with as main focus the growing and evolving role of ‘competition’ as an institutional feature that can take many guises. The main research questions are:
(i) What are the main institutional frameworks that have arisen in the European public transport sector since the pressure for a wider usage of ‘competition’ appeared in the 1980s?
(ii) How have these institutional frameworks fared since? In particular, what developments can be observed and what can be said about them?
(iii) What are the main resulting policy challenges and options? ...
(i) What are the main institutional frameworks that have arisen in the European public transport sector since the pressure for a wider usage of ‘competition’ appeared in the 1980s?
(ii) How have these institutional frameworks fared since? In particular, what developments can be observed and what can be said about them?
(iii) What are the main resulting policy challenges and options? ...
This thesis finds its origins in the debates that developed in the 1980s in Western Europe as to the role competition and private entrepreneurship should play in the provision of public transport services. At the time, observation of the debates showed there was widespread misunderstanding about the institutional changes put in place and the results obtained. Against that background, the research in this thesis centred around gaining a deeper understanding of the variety of institutional frameworks that can exist in the public transport sector and on how these develop, with as main focus the growing and evolving role of ‘competition’ as an institutional feature that can take many guises. The main research questions are:
(i) What are the main institutional frameworks that have arisen in the European public transport sector since the pressure for a wider usage of ‘competition’ appeared in the 1980s?
(ii) How have these institutional frameworks fared since? In particular, what developments can be observed and what can be said about them?
(iii) What are the main resulting policy challenges and options?
(i) What are the main institutional frameworks that have arisen in the European public transport sector since the pressure for a wider usage of ‘competition’ appeared in the 1980s?
(ii) How have these institutional frameworks fared since? In particular, what developments can be observed and what can be said about them?
(iii) What are the main resulting policy challenges and options?
De huidige NS-concessie geldt tot 2025. Vanuit de EU wordt er aangestuurd op meer concurrentie. Welke ruimte hebben de lidstaten voor marktordening op het spoor? Aan de hand van ervaringen in het buitenland wordt er geschetst welke keuzes en uitdagingen na 2025 voor Nederland verstandig zijn.
IN HET KORT
● Europees spoorbeleid heeft geleid tot een veelheid aan hervor- mingen, met aanzienlijke verschillen tussen landen.
● Nederland kan voor de inrichting van het spoor na 2025 leren van de ervaringen in het buitenland.
● Kwesties als de mate van samenloop, keuzes in verticale split- sing, en de rol van open access verdienen meer aandacht.
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De huidige NS-concessie geldt tot 2025. Vanuit de EU wordt er aangestuurd op meer concurrentie. Welke ruimte hebben de lidstaten voor marktordening op het spoor? Aan de hand van ervaringen in het buitenland wordt er geschetst welke keuzes en uitdagingen na 2025 voor Nederland verstandig zijn.
IN HET KORT
● Europees spoorbeleid heeft geleid tot een veelheid aan hervor- mingen, met aanzienlijke verschillen tussen landen.
● Nederland kan voor de inrichting van het spoor na 2025 leren van de ervaringen in het buitenland.
● Kwesties als de mate van samenloop, keuzes in verticale split- sing, en de rol van open access verdienen meer aandacht.
Splitsing van het spoorbedrijf in een vervoers- en infrastructuurbedrijf wordt vaak als noodzakelijk voor eerlijke concurrentie op het spoor gezien. Aan zo’n splitsing kleven echter ook nadelen en er zijn andere concurrentiegerichte hervormingen. Een verkenning van de alternatieven.
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Splitsing van het spoorbedrijf in een vervoers- en infrastructuurbedrijf wordt vaak als noodzakelijk voor eerlijke concurrentie op het spoor gezien. Aan zo’n splitsing kleven echter ook nadelen en er zijn andere concurrentiegerichte hervormingen. Een verkenning van de alternatieven.
The paper investigates how the interplay between six organisational elements of public transport systems (conditions) – i.e. integration of planning responsibilities within an authority at the regional/metropolitan level; land-use and transport integration; long-term metropolitan public transport planning; agency over funding; fare integration, and allocation of risks between gov- ernment and operators - influence two key performance indicators (outcomes) – modal split and cost-recovery. The study focuses on selected metropolitan areas in Europe, Australia, and Canada, and employs Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). QCA can handle multiple explanatory conditions in combination, framing the relationship between conditions and studied outcomes in terms of necessity and sufficiency. The paper reveals three alternative combinations of organi- sational elements that are sufficient for achieving each outcome, underscoring that modal split and cost-recovery depend on the combined effects of multiple conditions (conjunctural caus- ality), and that different paths can lead to similar results (equifinality). Furthermore, even though both outcomes are linked to higher usage of public transport, findings suggest that each of them might require decision-makers to give attention to different elements. Higher modal split is closely linked to both integration between land-use and transport, and the integration of planning responsibilities within an authority at the regional/metropolitan level. Higher cost-recovery, in turn, requires focus on the way agency over funding and risk allocation strategies shape in- centives for savings and/or revenue generation.
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The paper investigates how the interplay between six organisational elements of public transport systems (conditions) – i.e. integration of planning responsibilities within an authority at the regional/metropolitan level; land-use and transport integration; long-term metropolitan public transport planning; agency over funding; fare integration, and allocation of risks between gov- ernment and operators - influence two key performance indicators (outcomes) – modal split and cost-recovery. The study focuses on selected metropolitan areas in Europe, Australia, and Canada, and employs Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). QCA can handle multiple explanatory conditions in combination, framing the relationship between conditions and studied outcomes in terms of necessity and sufficiency. The paper reveals three alternative combinations of organi- sational elements that are sufficient for achieving each outcome, underscoring that modal split and cost-recovery depend on the combined effects of multiple conditions (conjunctural caus- ality), and that different paths can lead to similar results (equifinality). Furthermore, even though both outcomes are linked to higher usage of public transport, findings suggest that each of them might require decision-makers to give attention to different elements. Higher modal split is closely linked to both integration between land-use and transport, and the integration of planning responsibilities within an authority at the regional/metropolitan level. Higher cost-recovery, in turn, requires focus on the way agency over funding and risk allocation strategies shape in- centives for savings and/or revenue generation.
This paper contributes to the discussion on the ways organisational form of public transport systems may influence its performance. A worldwide Delphi survey with experts in the field is presented. After a three-stage iterative process interspersing questionnaires and controlled feedback the survey produces authoritative inventories and ratings of performance indicators and organisational features in public transport. In relation to performance indicators, system-wide metrics such as user satisfaction, cost-recovery, and modal split are selected as preferred measures for a strategic assessment of public transport. Concerning features of organisational form driving performance outcomes, integration emerged as the central dimension: policy integration between public transport and other sectors, single integrated planning authority, as well as ticket and fare integration were highly rated by Delphi experts.
...
This paper contributes to the discussion on the ways organisational form of public transport systems may influence its performance. A worldwide Delphi survey with experts in the field is presented. After a three-stage iterative process interspersing questionnaires and controlled feedback the survey produces authoritative inventories and ratings of performance indicators and organisational features in public transport. In relation to performance indicators, system-wide metrics such as user satisfaction, cost-recovery, and modal split are selected as preferred measures for a strategic assessment of public transport. Concerning features of organisational form driving performance outcomes, integration emerged as the central dimension: policy integration between public transport and other sectors, single integrated planning authority, as well as ticket and fare integration were highly rated by Delphi experts.
Workshop 3 report
Market initiative regimes in bus, coach and rail: Recent developments, threats, developing paradigms and regulatory needs
This paper synthesizes evidence from Workshop 3 ‘Market initiative regimes: experience and measures to improve performance’ of the 15th International Conference on Competition and Ownership in Land Passenger Transport. This workshop discussed the growing importance of market initiative regimes in public transport focussing on the market and regulatory developments in three sectors: local and regional bus, long-distance coach and passenger train services. The comparison of these sectors illustrated impressive but also very substantial differences between countries in terms of market potentials, success of market initiative, regulatory paths taken and resulting performance. Various observations were made. The size and stratification of passenger transports markets in most countries or regions studied seemed to leave little room for direct intramodal competition, while there was more trust in the viability of intermodal competition. The lack of data was perceived to be a major issue, not only for research but also for market transparency and well-functioning. The development of new intermediaries for information and ticketing purposes seems to point at a possible gradual replacement of the ‘old’ public transport integration dogma with some new paradigm. There is still a lack of academic studies focussing on the process leading to demand and supply of regulation of market initiative regimes and of studies looking subsequently at the factors leading to the uptake of such regulatory tools or at the practical requirements for such specific regulations to function.
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This paper synthesizes evidence from Workshop 3 ‘Market initiative regimes: experience and measures to improve performance’ of the 15th International Conference on Competition and Ownership in Land Passenger Transport. This workshop discussed the growing importance of market initiative regimes in public transport focussing on the market and regulatory developments in three sectors: local and regional bus, long-distance coach and passenger train services. The comparison of these sectors illustrated impressive but also very substantial differences between countries in terms of market potentials, success of market initiative, regulatory paths taken and resulting performance. Various observations were made. The size and stratification of passenger transports markets in most countries or regions studied seemed to leave little room for direct intramodal competition, while there was more trust in the viability of intermodal competition. The lack of data was perceived to be a major issue, not only for research but also for market transparency and well-functioning. The development of new intermediaries for information and ticketing purposes seems to point at a possible gradual replacement of the ‘old’ public transport integration dogma with some new paradigm. There is still a lack of academic studies focussing on the process leading to demand and supply of regulation of market initiative regimes and of studies looking subsequently at the factors leading to the uptake of such regulatory tools or at the practical requirements for such specific regulations to function.
The reform of railway regulation is a complex field and many details are of utmost importance both for the understanding of the functioning of the models and for the success of their implementation. Pure models do not exist in reality and it is common to encounter different models on different markets within a same country. Most countries choose for a step-by-step approach where the future steps are often only sketched. More models can be developed than can be observed in the real world. It will in all cases be necessary to take account of the specific local situation and aims to design an appropriate model. The development of the required regulation and contracts necessitates specific skills, professional organisations and an appropriate amount of time. This can be quite costly but it is assumed to produce advantages in the longer run. The creation of a level playing field is a requirement for fair competition.
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The reform of railway regulation is a complex field and many details are of utmost importance both for the understanding of the functioning of the models and for the success of their implementation. Pure models do not exist in reality and it is common to encounter different models on different markets within a same country. Most countries choose for a step-by-step approach where the future steps are often only sketched. More models can be developed than can be observed in the real world. It will in all cases be necessary to take account of the specific local situation and aims to design an appropriate model. The development of the required regulation and contracts necessitates specific skills, professional organisations and an appropriate amount of time. This can be quite costly but it is assumed to produce advantages in the longer run. The creation of a level playing field is a requirement for fair competition.
Switzerland counts a large number of railway companies. Shared use of infrastructures exists for many years, as well as through-ticketing arrangements and integrated information systems. Concerns about the efficiency of the Swiss passenger transport system have recently triggered a reform of the legal and regulatory framework. This chapter focuses on Switzerland presents the legal and regulatory framework and the considerations which led to the current situation. It describes two case studies. The one illustrating the tendering of a line which was owned and operated by the Federal railways and the other illustrating the implementation of Cantonal legislation as a consequence of the regionalisation of the subsidisation of the regional railway services in the Canton of Bern. Regular passenger transport concessions give an exclusive right to scheduled transport passengers on a specific route. Such concessions are meant to give to the authorities an instrument to guarantee efficient public transport in the whole of Switzerland.
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Switzerland counts a large number of railway companies. Shared use of infrastructures exists for many years, as well as through-ticketing arrangements and integrated information systems. Concerns about the efficiency of the Swiss passenger transport system have recently triggered a reform of the legal and regulatory framework. This chapter focuses on Switzerland presents the legal and regulatory framework and the considerations which led to the current situation. It describes two case studies. The one illustrating the tendering of a line which was owned and operated by the Federal railways and the other illustrating the implementation of Cantonal legislation as a consequence of the regionalisation of the subsidisation of the regional railway services in the Canton of Bern. Regular passenger transport concessions give an exclusive right to scheduled transport passengers on a specific route. Such concessions are meant to give to the authorities an instrument to guarantee efficient public transport in the whole of Switzerland.
Changing trains
Railway reform and the role of competition: The experience of six countries
Published in 1999. The book presents and compares the new relationships between transport authorities and railway companies in a number of countries (Great Britain, Sweden, Japan, Germany, Switzerland and France). It also presents a number of case studies focusing on the role of contracts, competition and tendering and presenting the achievements of the new regimes so far. This book is aimed at all transport professionals, authorities and academics interested in the increasing use of competition in the passenger railway sector.
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Published in 1999. The book presents and compares the new relationships between transport authorities and railway companies in a number of countries (Great Britain, Sweden, Japan, Germany, Switzerland and France). It also presents a number of case studies focusing on the role of contracts, competition and tendering and presenting the achievements of the new regimes so far. This book is aimed at all transport professionals, authorities and academics interested in the increasing use of competition in the passenger railway sector.
Het slaperige Duitse stadje Pforzheim, tussen Karlsruhe en Stuttgart, veroorzaakte de nodige opschudding in de Duitse ov-wereld toen een vervoerder bereid bleek het stadsnet commercieel te exploiteren, dus zonder subsidie. Is dit het begin van meer?
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Het slaperige Duitse stadje Pforzheim, tussen Karlsruhe en Stuttgart, veroorzaakte de nodige opschudding in de Duitse ov-wereld toen een vervoerder bereid bleek het stadsnet commercieel te exploiteren, dus zonder subsidie. Is dit het begin van meer?